Abstract
Predicting and mitigating the impacts of chronic noise on marine mammals is limited by sparse data on repeated disturbance. Naval sonar disrupts species behavior with lethal and sublethal risks, yet mitigation relies on short-term studies. We analyzed a decade of passive acoustic observational data to assess behavioral changes of goose-beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris) at locations near and far from long-standing sonar operations. Whales remained present in impacted areas but exhibited patterns consistent with avoidance observed in exposure experiments. Interpreting these as responses, a 50% disturbance probability occurred at 122–132 dBpp re 1 µPa, below regulatory thresholds. With median 1.0–1.2 day intervals between exercises and 132–134 dBpp re 1 µPa daily received levels, disturbances imposed near-daily energetic and foraging costs. Differences in responses between areas with similar exposure suggest that ecological factors such as habitat quality may promote habitat persistence despite moderate disturbance. Over a decade, whales became more likely to be detected during shorter exercises and after exposure while maintaining sensitivity to moderate-to-high exposure levels. This suggests either reduced displacement responses over time or suitable prey conditions not found elsewhere as a result of changes in habitat conditions. These results suggest mitigation should prioritize sonar-free periods and limit exercise duration.
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Acknowledgements
This project required vast support from technicians, ship crew, data experts, and members of the Scripps Marine Bioacoustics Research Collaborative both past and present. We would like to thank Ryan Griswold, Bruce Thayre, John Hurwitz, and Kieran Lenssen for leading the maintenance, recovery, and deployment of the acoustic sensors used in this work. A special thanks to Erin O’Neill and Shelby Bloom for processing the raw acoustic data for this analysis. We would like to thank the crew of the R/V Shearwater, R/V Beyster, and R/V Robert Gordon Sproul for supporting our science missions over this decade. The funding for this research was provided by the Office of Naval Research Marine Mammal and Biology Program, the Naval Postgraduate School, the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) N45 Program.
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All data needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper and/or the Supplementary Materials. Additionally, anonymized data created for the statistical analysis and code are also available via the Dryad Digital Repository: https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.9p8cz8wwv.
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Solsona-Berga, A., Trickey, J.S., Paxton, C.G.M. et al. Shifting responses of goose-beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris) to long-standing naval sonar exposure opens new perspectives for research and mitigation.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-59072-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-59072-y
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