Abstract
Air pollution is a significant environmental concern in industrial and urban regions, posing risks to ecosystems and vegetation health. Semi-urban industrial areas such as Dang, Nepal, remain understudied despite substantial emissions from cement industries, highlighting the need to assess plant responses and their role as bio-indicators. This study evaluated the impacts of PM₂.₅ on common fruit plant species surrounding the Ghorahi Cement Factory (GCF). Eight sampling sites were selected using a wind rose diagram to represent upwind and downwind sites during dry and wet seasons. Leaf samples were analyzed for Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI), Specific Leaf Area (SLA), and Dust Accumulation (DA), while PM₂.₅ concentrations were monitored across a spatial gradient around the GCF in each season. PM₂.₅ concentrations were higher during the dry season and decreased during the wet season due to meteorological and anthropogenic influences. Plant responses showed clear seasonal variation, with species exhibiting higher tolerance during the wet season. PM₂.₅ showed a positive association with dust accumulation and a negative relationship with key physiological parameters, indicating pollution-induced stress, particularly during the dry season. SLA varied among species, reflecting differences in adaptive capacity, while DA highlighted species-specific dust retention potential. The observed physiological responses suggest that prolonged exposure to PM₂.₅ may influence the health of fruit plant species in industrial environments, with potential implications for vegetation management, agricultural sustainability, and environmental monitoring. Based on the average APTI values, Citrus limon, Psidium guajava, and Mangifera indica were classified as tolerant species and are suitable for greenbelt development, while Artocarpus heterophyllus, Morus alba, and Litchi chinensis were categorized as intermediate, indicating overall species-specific variability in pollution response across seasons. This study provides insights into plant-based monitoring of PM₂.₅ in semi-urban industrial environments of Nepal and represents the first systematic evaluation of seasonal variation in APTI, SLA, and DA in common fruit plant species near an industrial source.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Central Department of Environmental Science, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University (CDES, IoST-TU), for providing the opportunity to carry out this research, and to the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) for providing research funding. The authors sincerely acknowledge the Ghorahi Sub-Metropolitan City, Ghorahi Cement Factory and local communities for their valuable support and cooperation during the study.
Funding
This research was funded by the Implementation of Urban Ecosystem-based Adaptation Research Activities Program, implemented by the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)-Nepal Climate Change Knowledge Management Centre (NCCKMC) in collaboration with Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA). The grant is a part of the Urban Ecosystem-based Adaptation for Climate-resilient Development in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal (Kathmandu Urban EbA Project), approved by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) with Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and being executed by the KVDA with the technical oversight of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). However, this grant covered only research expenses, student research support and did not include publication charges.
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The study received approval from Ghorahi Sub-Metropolitan City and Ward No. 4, Dang, Nepal, and consent from Ghorahi Cement Factory. No separate ethical clearance was required for leaf sampling.
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Regmi, P., Parajuli, I. Impact of PM2.5 on common fruit species around Ghorahi Cement Factory, Dang, Nepal.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-62318-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-62318-4
Keywords
- Air Pollution Tolerance Index
- Dust Accumulation
- Greenbelts
- Plant Species
- Particulate Matter
- Specific Leaf Area
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