Abstract
Promoting pro-environmental behavior has become increasingly urgent in the context of accelerating ecological degradation. Drawing on spillover theory, this study investigates whether and how engagement in environmental serious games promotes real-world-oriented pro-environmental intentions and willingness through cognitive and affective mechanisms. Across four controlled experiments, we show that environmental serious games can foster such responses beyond the virtual context. This behavioral transfer is consistent with two parallel, empirically distinct pathways modeled as simultaneous mediators, namely environmental self-efficacy as the cognitive pathway and nature empathy as the affective pathway. Furthermore, the spillover effect is differentially moderated by the valence of an induced state of awe and by an induced state of connectedness to nature. Specifically, awe of beautiful nature amplifies the transfer, whereas awe of threatening nature attenuates it, and a heightened state of connectedness to nature strengthens it. Because the outcomes were behavioral intentions and commitment-based measures rather than directly observed behavior, the findings are interpreted as evidence on pro-environmental intentions and willingness. Together, these findings advance a cognitive-affective dual-pathway spillover model that explains how digitally mediated environmental experiences shape these responses. This study extends spillover theory to virtual-to-real behavioral contexts and offers actionable implications for environmental serious game design and digital environmental education.
Subjects
- Ecology
- Environmental social sciences
- Psychology
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the participants for their support to this study.
Funding
This research was supported by 2026 University-Level Teaching Reform Project of Chongqing Open University and Chongqing Technology and Business Institute, “Generative AI in Vocational Education: Double-Edged Learning Effects and Teaching Governance” (Grant No. GZZX2026203) , and the Social Science Project of Chongqing Open University and Chongqing Technology and Business Institute, “Driving Green Consumption and Green Supply Chains through Environmental Serious Games”(Grant No. KYZZ2025-8).
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The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Chongqing Technology and Business Institute (approval no.: 20250510006). All participants provided informed consent before taking part. Because the studies concealed their precise purpose to reduce demand characteristics, participants were initially informed that they were taking part in a “Game Experience Evaluation”; this involved concealment rather than active deception, as no false information was provided, and all participants were debriefed about the actual aim of the study at the end of the session. Participation was voluntary, and participants were free to discontinue at any time and to request withdrawal of their data after completion without penalty. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Game evaluation: based on the game you just played, please evaluate it by indicating the extent to which you agree with the following statements.
No. | Items |
|---|---|
1 | This game included content related to green behaviors and ecological scenarios, such as environmental protection and ecological construction. |
2 | This game embodies principles of environmental protection. |
3 | This game was difficult to play. |
4 | This game made me feel excited. |
5 | This game made me feel frustrated. |
6 | This game made me experience a sense of environmental friendliness, energy saving, and low-carbon behavior. |
7 | This game conveys a great deal of environmental knowledge. |
The nature empathy scale is derived from Tam (2013).
No. | Items |
|---|---|
EA1 | I can easily put myself in the situation of these plants and animals. |
EA2 | I am able to understand the feelings of these plants and animals from their perspective. |
EA3 | The difficult situations of these plants and animals appear vividly in my mind. |
EA4 | I feel concerned about these plants and animals. |
EA5 | I can sense what these plants and animals are experiencing at that moment. |
EA6 | I can feel the suffering endured by these plants and animals. |
EA7 | I feel sympathy for these plants and animals. |
The environmental self-efficacy scale is derived from Steinhorst et al. (2015).
No. | Items |
|---|---|
ESF1 | I feel capable of participating in environmental protection activities. |
ESF2 | I am confident that I can engage in environmental protection activities. |
ESF3 | I believe I am able to implement environmental protection activities. |
The pro-environmental behavior scale is derived from Kaiser (2003).
No. | Items |
|---|---|
PEB1 | I pay attention to environmental issues in real life. |
PEB2 | I examine whether my daily behaviors comply with green and low-carbon requirements. |
PEB3 | I am willing to engage in green and low-carbon behaviors in real life. |
PEB4 | I am willing to observe nature in real life. |
PEB5 | I am willing to participate in environmental protection activities. |
PEB6 | I am willing to promote environmental protection to people around me. |
PEB7 | I am willing to purchase green and low-carbon products. |
PEB8 | I am willing to sort and recycle waste. |
Manipulation check for connectedness to nature
After watching the video, please indicate the extent to which you agree with the following statements.
No. | Items |
|---|---|
1 | I feel a sense of oneness with nature. |
2 | I feel that the natural world is a place where I belong. |
3 | Animals and plants evoke a sense of familiarity and closeness in me. |
4 | I feel that I am part of the natural cycle. |
5 | I feel that I belong to the Earth, and that the Earth belongs to me. |
6 | I feel that I am a part of the natural world. |
Manipulation check for awe
After watching the video, please indicate the extent to which you experienced the following emotions:
No. | Items |
|---|---|
1 | I felt awe. |
2 | I felt wonder. |
3 | I felt sadness. |
4 | I felt happiness. |
5 | I felt pleasure. |
6 | I felt contentment. |
7 | I felt fear. |
8 | I felt worry. |
9 | I felt tension. |
Green consumption intention
Suppose you need to purchase a pack of facial tissues, and the supermarket offers an environmentally friendly option. The product description is as follows: This product uses renewable bamboo as a substitute for non-renewable natural wood pulp. The quality of the product does not compromise normal use. It is an eco-friendly tissue that helps protect the natural environment.
Assuming the product’s size and appearance meet your requirements, and ignoring the influence of packaging and brand, compared with conventional tissues, how willing would you be to purchase this product? (1 = Very Unwilling, 7 = Very Willing)
Tree-planting donation
Participants’ environmental charity behavior was measured by the amount they were willing to donate for trees. A higher donation indicates a stronger willingness to engage in environmental charity. Specifically, the Alashan SEE Foundation launched the “100 Million Haloxylon ammodendron” project in 2014, aiming to plant 100 million desert plants, represented by Haloxylon ammodendron, in key ecological areas of Alashan over 10 years. The project intends to restore 2 million acres of desert vegetation, improve the local ecological environment, and curb desertification.Donors can make contributions via Taobao, as illustrated in the figure. Participants completing this questionnaire had a chance to receive a 70 RMB cash bonus. If you were selected to receive the 70 RMB bonus, how many Haloxylon ammodendron seedlings would you be willing to donate to the “100 Million Haloxylon ammodendron” project (10 RMB per seedling)? Willingness to donate seedlings was measured using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = 1 seedling or fewer, 7 = 7 seedlings or more).
Note
Environmental donations are entirely voluntary. Your choice here represents a personal commitment, and no one else will know your decision. However, once a commitment is made, it should be honored. Please follow your inner intention when making the donation. Rest assured, it is perfectly acceptable not to donate. Save the QR code image and search the store on the Taobao app to access the donation page. If you receive the bonus, please remember to fulfill your commitment.
Environmental time-donation
In recent years, “donating time” to social welfare activities has become increasingly popular. According to the Blue Book of Volunteer Service: Report on the Development of Volunteer Service in China (2021–2022), the average annual volunteer service time per person in China is 7.44 h. In the field of environmental protection, time donation refers to self-initiated or organized participation in environmental activities, such as collecting recyclables, promoting environmental knowledge, engaging with communities to raise environmental awareness, and cleaning outdoor litter.
How willing are you to donate your time to participate in environmental charity activities? Responses were measured using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Very Unwilling, 7 = Very Willing).
Note
Environmental time donations are entirely voluntary. Your public response here represents a personal commitment. Once a commitment is made, it should be honored. Please follow your inner intention when deciding whether to donate your time. Rest assured, it is perfectly reasonable not to donate; if you choose not to, please ignore this item. If you do make a commitment, please pay attention to opportunities to participate in environmental charity activities in the future.
Appendix B
See Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Note. ***p < .001, ** p < .01,* p < .05.
Note. ***p < .001, ** p < .01,* p < .05.
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He, M., Feng, Z. & Li, S. Environmental serious games foster pro-environmental intentions through spillover moderated by connectedness to nature and awe.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-65065-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-65065-8
Keywords
- Environmental serious games
- Behavior spillover effect
- Awe of nature
- Connectedness to nature
- Pro-environmental behavior
Source: Ecology - nature.com
