Abstract
Water security in Peninsular Malaysia remains a critical policy challenge due to fragmented governance, urban expansion, and the uneven distribution of freshwater resources. This study aims to address these challenges by establishing a state-level consolidated water security index (CWSI) that integrates five dimensions, eleven indicators and twenty-nine variables. The CWSI is used to (i) evaluate the current status of water security in eleven states of Peninsular Malaysia and (ii) identify the key risks and challenges associated with water security. Weights for each dimension, indicator, and variable were calculated using the AHP method to ensure methodological rigour. Additionally, normalisation and sensitivity analysis were conducted to ensure cross-state comparability and index robustness. Spatial disparities are clearly evident in the findings. States, such as Terengganu (CWSI = 0.612) and Pahang (CWSI = 0.608), demonstrate strong performance. Meanwhile, Perlis (CWSI = 0.408) and Selangor (CWSI = 0.414) remain vulnerable to persistent water security issues due to dam storage limitations, non-revenue water losses and insufficient treatment capacity. This study suggests that the CWSI be integrated into state-level governance frameworks to guide infrastructure investment, enhance accountability and align performance monitoring with national policies, such as the Water Sector Transformation 2040 (AIR 2040) and the Sustainable Development Goals. By incorporating evidence-based indicators into policy practice, the CWSI provides a tool to strengthen the coherence, transparency and adaptive capacity of Malaysia’s water governance system. Future efforts should prioritise regular index updates to capture temporal variations and address data gaps, thereby supporting more adaptive and evidence-based water security management.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia for providing financial support towards the Integrated Water Research Synergy Consortium (IWaReS) research programme through Konsortium Kecemerlangan Penyelidikan – KKP/2021/UKM-UKM/1). The authors would like to express gratitude to agencies, such as the Ministry of Energy Transition and Water Transformation (PETRA), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Sustainability (NRES), National Water Services Commission (SPAN), Sewerage Services Department (SSD), Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd (IWK), Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), National Water Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM), Department of Environment (DOE), Selangor Water Management Authority (LUAS), Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM) and the Ministry of Health (MOH) for providing valuable information and data that greatly contribute to our study.
Funding
This work was supported by the Konsortium Kecemerlangan Penyelidikan (KKP/2021/UKMUKM/1/1) from the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia.
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Rafaai, N.H., Lee, K.E., Goh, T.L. et al. Developing a state-level water security index to inform sustainable water policy in Peninsular Malaysia.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-68987-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-68987-5
Keywords
- Analytical hierarchy process
- Ecosystem health
- Governance
- Sustainable development goals
- Water security index
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