in Ecology

Global patterns in plant–pollinator specialization

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Abstract

Pollination is a key ecological process sustaining biodiversity and food security, yet global patterns of plant–pollinator specialization remain unresolved. Using a global dataset of quantitative plant–pollinator networks (>3,400 networks, >110,000 interactions), we show that specialization is latitudinally structured, but not as a single directional pattern. We find no consistent monotonic increase or decrease in specialization towards the Equator. Instead, network-level and pollinator specialization peak at low northern latitudes near the tropical–subtropical boundary, whereas plant specialization is hemispherically asymmetric. Climate is most often the best-supported predictor of specialization compared with latitude, biodiversity and environmental productivity. Network-level specialization declines with increasing mean annual temperature, with strong group-specific differences. Precipitation exerts nonlinear effects: plant specialization peaks at intermediate precipitation but is lower at the wettest sites, whereas pollinator specialization is lower at intermediate precipitation, although often in interaction with temperature. Pollinator groups diverge strongly, especially in contrasting precipitation-related patterns between birds and insects. These findings show that global plant–pollinator specialization is structured by latitude and climate in complex and taxon-specific ways, with implications for uneven responses of pollination networks to future climatic change.

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Fig. 1: Hypothesized latitudinal patterns in interaction specialization.
Fig. 2: Conceptual workflow for analysing the LSG in plant–pollinator interactions.
Fig. 3: Global coverage and taxonomic composition of the analysed plant–pollinator networks.
Fig. 4: Latitudinal patterns in specialization of plant–pollinator interactions across datasets and metrics.
Fig. 5: Best-supported climatic predictor models for plant–pollinator specialization across datasets and metrics.

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  • Biogeography

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  • Ecological networks

  • Plant-Pollinator Interaction Dynamics and Networks

Data availability

All data used for modelling (all network characteristics, including specialization metrics, together with all explanatory variables and other metadata) are available via Zenodo at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19118146 (ref. 71). Note that raw interaction matrices are not publicly available because they are often part of ongoing projects. Requests for access to these data should be directed to S.P.S. or R. Tropek, who will coordinate the request with the contributing authors, aiming to respond within a month. The contributing authors will collectively make access decisions.

Code availability

Complete R code used for this analysis is available via Zenodo at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19118146 (ref. 71).

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to everybody who assisted with sampling of the analysed datasets, especially to E. L. S. Bezerra, K. Chmel, J. Queiroz and P. Willmer; to O. Mottl for priceless statistical advice; and to S. D. Leonhardt, M. Volf, T. Kočárková, F. Papandreou, J. Oñate-Casado, R. Pernice and C. Charalambous for feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript. We used GPT large language models (ChatGPT, OpenAI, models 4.5, 4o, 4-turbo, 5 and 5.2 from June 2024 to March 2026) to assist in improving the clarity, readability and stylistic refinement of the manuscript text.

Funding

This study was funded by the Czech Science Foundation grant no. 21-24186 M (to S.P.S., D.A., J.F., Š.J., I.N.K., A.S. and R. Tropek). Individual datasets and co-authors were supported by Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (grant no. 1134644), São Paulo Research Foundation (grant nos. 2023/03083-6, 2023/02881-6, 2023/17728-9) and Consulate General of France in São Paulo (all previous to M.A.R.M.); Bavarian State Ministry of Science and Art (to F.M.); Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (to L.V.D.); Center for Research on Biodiversity Dynamics and Climate Change, CEPID–FAPESP (grant no. 2021/10639-5 to F.W.A. and C.S.B.); National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, CNPq (grant no. 308559/2022-3 to F.W.A., C.S.B.; grant no. 141736/2020-8 to A.C.P.M.; grant nos. 311665/2022-5, 400904/2019-5 and 423939/2021-1 to J.P.R.B.; grant no. 310508/2019-3 to I.C.M.; grant no. 309893/2023-2 to L.M.S.A.; grant no. 177005/2024-6 to V.H.D.S.; grant no. 305204/2024-6 to M.A.R.M; grant no. 311665/2022-5 to A.R.R.); CAPES (Finance Code 001; COOPBRASS: grant no. 88887.947041/2024-00 to A.C.P.M.; grant no. 177005/2024-6 to V.H.D.S.; PROEX grant no. 88882.347259/2019-01 to U.M.D.); Brazilian Biodiversity Fund, FunBio (grant no. 004/2021 to I.N.G.; grant no. 029/2022 to V.H.D.S.); Rufford Foundation (grant no. 377031 to I.N.G.; grant no. 28478-1 to U.M.D.); Czech Science Foundation (grant no. 19-14620S; T.M.F.); German Research Foundation DFG (grant no. 152112243 to F.L.-E.); Dirección General de Investigación, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala (grant no. 4.8.63.2.27–2012 to E.C. and N.E.K.; grant nos. 4.8.63.8.60–2018 and 4.8.63.4.41–2020 to P. Landaverde); FAPEMIG (grant no. RED-00039-23 to P.K.M. and A.R.R.); INCT Pollination (CNPq/CAPES/FAPERJ Call grant no. 58/2022 to P.K.M. and A.R.R.); Faculty for Future, Schlumberger Foundation (Q.B.C.-A., P. Landaverde); the Human Frontier Science Program (grant no. RGP023/2023 to C.J.v.d.K.); European Research Council ERC (grant no. 101054177 to A.T.; grant no. 819374 to Y.C., V.H. and T. Krausl); Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (KAW grant no. 2019.0202 to A.D.B. and W.H.A.O.); LIFE project Olivares Vivos+ (LIFE20 grant no. NAT/ES/001487 to P.J.R.); Missouri Department of Conservation (grant no. K02442-PI0242-022 to R.N.A., M. Mayberry and A.L.R.); National Science Foundation (grant no. DGE-2244337 to L.A.D.); OAPN grant no. 014/2009 (to M. Méndez); CONAHCYT (grant no. CBF2023-2024-216 to W.D.); Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (grant nos. PID2021-127900NB-I00, PGC2018-098498-A-100 and RYC2021-032351-I to A.M.); Israel Ministry of Environmental Protection (grant no. 121-5-13 to T. Keasar); and funding of iDiv via the German Research Foundation DFG (FZT 118, grant no. 202548816 to T.M.K.). Computational resources were provided by the e-INFRA CZ project (ID:90254), supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ecology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia

    Sailee P. Sakhalkar, Dominik Anýž, Jan Filip, Štěpán Janeček, Yannick Klomberg, Ishmeal N. Kobe, Jan E. J. Mertens, Antigoni Sounapoglou, Guillermo Uceda-Gómez & Robert Tropek

  2. Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia

    Sailee P. Sakhalkar

  3. Ecological Networks Lab, Department of Biology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany

    Nico Blüthgen

  4. Department of Ecology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA

    Laura A. Burkle & Michael P. Simanonok

  5. Chicago Botanic Garden, Negaunee Institute for Plant Science and Action, Glencoe, IL, USA

    Paul CaraDonna & Justin A. Bain

  6. Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, Crested Butte, CO, USA

    Paul CaraDonna, Julian Resasco & Rye Dickson

  7. Plant Biology & Conservation, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

    Paul CaraDonna & Justin A. Bain

  8. Section for Molecular Ecology & Evolution, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Bo Dalsgaard

  9. Biometry & Environmental System Analysis, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

    Carsten F. Dormann

  10. Centre for Ecology and Conservation, Faculty of Environment, Science and Economy, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK

    Christopher N. Kaiser-Bunbury

  11. Department of Species Interaction Ecology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany

    Tiffany M. Knight

  12. German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany

    Tiffany M. Knight

  13. Department of Science and Conservation, National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalāheo, HI, USA

    Tiffany M. Knight

  14. Faculty of Arts, Science and Technology, University of Northampton, Northampton, UK

    Jeff Ollerton

  15. Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming Institute of Botany, Kunming, China

    Jeff Ollerton

  16. Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (SBiK-F), Frankfurt (Main), Germany

    Matthias Schleuning

  17. Department of Biology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany

    Matthias Schleuning

  18. Cluster of Excellence (EXC 3121): TERRA—Terrestrial Geo-Biosphere Interactions in a Changing World, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

    Matthias Schleuning

  19. Argentine Institute for Dryland Research, CONICET & National University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina

    Diego P. Vázquez

  20. Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, National University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina

    Diego P. Vázquez

  21. Department of Biology, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO, USA

    Rita N. Afagwu, Anthony M. T. Castagna, Maggie Mayberry & Avery L. Russell

  22. Department of Biology, California State University Channel Islands, Camarillo, CA, USA

    Ruben Alarcón

  23. Laboratório de Ecologia da Polinização e Interações (LEPI), Department of Biodiversity and Biostatistics, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil

    Felipe W. Amorim & Caio S. Ballarin

  24. Centro de Síntese Ecológica e Conservação, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução – ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil

    Marsal D. Amorim, Camila Bosenbecker, Ingrid N. Gomes, Pietro K. Maruyama & Victor H. D. Silva

  25. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Conservação e Manejo da Vida Silvestre, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil

    Marsal D. Amorim & Victor H. D. Silva

  26. Department of Ecology and Evolution, Estación Biológica de Doñana, EBD-CSIC, Seville, Spain

    Blanca Arroyo-Correa & Carlos Martínez-Núñez

  27. University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Leioa, Spain

    Maddi Artamendi

  28. Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3), Leioa, Spain

    Maddi Artamendi & Ainhoa Magrach

  29. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Rektörlük, İzmir, Türkiye

    Zeynep Atalay

  30. Oklahoma Biological Survey, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA

    Justin A. Bain

  31. School of Geography and Natural Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

    Katherine C. R. Baldock

  32. Centre for Conservation and Restoration Science, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK

    Gavin Ballantyne

  33. Division of Environmental Science, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX, USA

    Behnaz Balmaki

  34. Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Třeboň, Czechia

    Michael Bartoš

  35. Department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India

    Vasuki Belavadi

  36. Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy

    Paolo Biella

  37. Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

    Anne D. Bjorkman & Wilhelm H. A. Osterman

  38. Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Gothenburg, Sweden

    Anne D. Bjorkman

  39. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência Florestal, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil

    João Paulo Raimundo Borges & Ana Carolina Pereira Machado

  40. CREAF, Bellaterra, Spain

    Jordi Bosch & Anselm Rodrigo Domínguez

  41. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Conservação e Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil

    Camila Bosenbecker

  42. UMR CNRS 7261, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Université de Tours, Tours, France

    Stephane Boyer & Marina Querejeta

  43. Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

    Karin T. Burghardt

  44. Yale School of the Environment, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA

    Karin T. Burghardt

  45. Unidad de Investigación para el Conocimiento, Uso y Valoración de la Biodiversidad, Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacia, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala

    Edson Cardona, Quebin Bosbely Casiá-Ajché, Natalia Escobedo Kenefic & Patricia Landaverde

  46. Department of Biology, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Kırıkkale University, Kırıkkale, Türkiye

    Ferhat Celep

  47. Naturpark Fränkische Schweiz – Frankenjura, Pottenstein/Kirchenbirkig, Germany

    Melanie N. Chisté

  48. Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

    Yann Clough, Veronica Hederström, Liam Kendall & Theresia Krausl

  49. Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia

    James M. Cook & Amy-Marie Gilpin

  50. School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK

    Liam P. Crowther

  51. Programas de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil

    Fabiana D. Reis

  52. CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vila do Conde, Portugal

    Luis P. da Silva

  53. BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vila do Conde, Portugal

    Luis P. da Silva

  54. Red de Ecoetología, Instituto de Ecología AC, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico

    Wesley Dáttilo

  55. Laboratorio Nacional de Biología del Cambio Climático, Mexico City, Mexico

    Wesley Dáttilo

  56. Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia

    Valeska De Cárdenas & Sissi Lozada-Gobilard

  57. Department of Biology, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain

    Joan Díaz-Calafat

  58. MUCBO – Museu Balear de Ciències Naturals (FJBS-MBCN), Sóller, Spain

    Joan Díaz-Calafat

  59. Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    Lynn V. Dicks

  60. Bioeconomy Science Institute, Lincoln, New Zealand

    Marion L. Donald

  61. School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

    Marion L. Donald

  62. Biology Department, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV, USA

    Lee A. Dyer

  63. International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Nairobi, Kenya

    Fairo F. Dzekashu

  64. Social Insects Research Group (SIRG), Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa

    Fairo F. Dzekashu, Christian W. W. Pirk & Abdullahi Yusuf

  65. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada

    Fairo F. Dzekashu

  66. Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico

    Natalia Escobedo Kenefic

  67. Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czechia

    Tom M. Fayle & Robert Tropek

  68. School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK

    Tom M. Fayle

  69. Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA

    Laura L. Figueroa

  70. Global Change Research Institute (IICG-URJC), Rey Juan Carlos University (URJC), Madrid, Spain

    Raúl García-Camacho, Luis Giménez-Benavides, José M. Iriondo, Carlos Lara-Romero, Marcos Méndez, Rubén Milla, Javier Morente-López & Rubén Torices

  71. Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Spain

    Raúl García-Camacho, Luis Giménez-Benavides, José M. Iriondo, Carlos Lara-Romero, Marcos Méndez, Rubén Milla, Javier Morente-López, Silvia Santamaría & Rubén Torices

  72. School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia

    Amy-Marie Gilpin

  73. Laboratório de Genética da Conservação de Abelhas (LaBee), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Viçosa Campus Florestal, Florestal, Brazil

    Ingrid N. Gomes

  74. Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

    Heather Grab

  75. Ecology of Tropical Agricultural Systems, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

    Ingo Grass

  76. Center for Biodiversity and Integrative Taxonomy (KomBioTa), University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

    Ingo Grass

  77. Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Travis J. Guy & Todd M. Palmer

  78. Wildlife Ecology & Health Group (WE&H), Departament de Medicina i Cirurgia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain

    Carlos Hernández-Castellano

  79. Insect Ecology Group, Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CZU), Prague, Czechia

    Carlos Hernández-Castellano

  80. Centre for Functional Ecology (CFE), Associate Laboratory TERRA, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

    Sandra Hervías-Parejo

  81. Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany

    Andrea Holzschuh, Sebastian Hopfenmüller, Fabienne Maihoff & Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter

  82. Cultural Landscape Günztal Foundation, Ottobeuren, Germany

    Sebastian Hopfenmüller

  83. Department of Biology of Ecosystems, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czechia

    Jana Jersáková

  84. Department of Integrative Biology and Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Shalene Jha

  85. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus

    Aphrodite Kantsa

  86. Department of Biology and the Environment, University of Haifa – Oranim, Tivon, Israel

    Tamar Keasar

  87. General Zoology, Institute for Biology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany

    Patricia Landaverde

  88. School of Agriculture and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

    H. Michael G. Lattorff

  89. Institute of Animal Ecology and Systematics, Justus Liebig University of Gießen, Gießen, Germany

    Felipe Librán-Embid

  90. CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, China

    Tial C. Ling

  91. Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

    Sissi Lozada-Gobilard

  92. Bokwaongo Village Forest Management Committee (BVFMC), Bokwaongo, Cameroon

    Francis Ewome Luma

  93. Mount Cameroon National Park, Buea, Cameroon

    Francis Ewome Luma

  94. Grupo de Investigación en Ecología y Evolución en los Trópicos-EETROP, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador

    Pedro Luna

  95. Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil

    Ludmilla M. S. Aguiar

  96. Rede Matas Secas – Programa de Pós Graduação em Biodiversidade, Evolução e Meio Ambiente, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil

    Ana Carolina Pereira Machado

  97. Programa de Pos-Graduação em Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil

    Isabel C. Machado

  98. Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain

    Ainhoa Magrach

  99. Swiss Ornithological Institute, Sempach, Switzerland

    Gabriel Marcacci

  100. Conservation Biology Lab, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland

    Gabriel Marcacci

  101. Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan

    Natsuki Matsubara & Takehiro Sasaki

  102. Department of Ecology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Marco A. R. Mello

  103. Plant-Insect Interactions, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany

    Ugo Mendes Diniz

  104. Plant Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

    Javier Morente-López

  105. Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia

    Tarcila L. Nadia & Kit S. Prendergast

  106. Laboratory of Biogeography & Ecology, Department of Geography, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Greece

    Georgios Nakas & Theodora Petanidou

  107. Department of Landscape and Biodiversity, Norwegian Institute for Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway

    Anders Nielsen

  108. Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

    Alon Ornai

  109. Department of Natural Science and Environmental Education, Oranim College of Education, Tivon, Israel

    Alon Ornai

  110. Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecología y Sustentabilidad (IIES), Laboratorio de Interacciones Bióticas en Habitats Alterados, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Campus Morelia, Morelia, México

    Sergio Osorio-Canadas

  111. School of Molecular and Life Science, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia, Australia

    Kit S. Prendergast

  112. Biology Department, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA

    Richard Primack

  113. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy (FCA-UNJu), San Salvador de Jujuy, Argentina

    Luis M. Primo

  114. UMR CNRS 7267, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France

    Marina Querejeta

  115. Departamento Engenharia e Meio Ambiente, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil

    Zelma Quirino

  116. Programas de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Ciência Florestal e Estudos Rurais, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil

    André Rodrigo Rech

  117. Laboratory of Zoology, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium

    Sara Reverté

  118. Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigación del Sistema Tierra de Andalucía, Universidad de Jaén, Jaén, Spain

    Pedro J. Rey

  119. Departmento de Biología Animal, Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Universidad de Jaén, Jaén, Spain

    Pedro J. Rey

  120. Instituto de Biologia – INBIO, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil

    Léo C. Rocha-Filho

  121. Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, Spain

    Anselm Rodrigo Domínguez

  122. Data Science Division, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA

    Masoud A. Rostami

  123. Department of Biological Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Brasil

    Francisco A. R. Santos

  124. Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan

    Takehiro Sasaki

  125. School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

    Manu E. Saunders

  126. The Woodland Trust, Grantham, UK

    Sam Tarrant

  127. Global Change Research Group, Mediterranean Institute for Advanced Studies, Mallorca, Spain

    Anna Traveset

  128. Functional Agrobiodiversity & Agroecology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

    Teja Tscharntke & Catrin Westphal

  129. Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czechia

    Guillermo Uceda-Gómez

  130. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, Columbus, NJ, USA

    Katherine R. Urban-Mead

  131. Yale College, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA

    Katherine R. Urban-Mead

  132. Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands

    Casper J. van der Kooi

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S.P.S. and R. Tropek conceived and designed the study, with substantial input from N.B.; S.P.S. collated and processed the datasets and performed the analyses under the supervision of R. Tropek, with feedback from N.B., B.D., C.F.D., C.N.K.-B., D.P.V., J.O., J.R., L.A.B., M.S., P.C. and T.M.K. S.P.S and R. Tropek prepared all visualizations, tables and supplementary materials, with contributions from D.A., J.F. and G.U.-G. S.P.S. and R. Tropek wrote the manuscript draft, with contributions from N.B., B.D., C.F.D., C.N.K.-B., D.P.V., J.O., J.R., L.A.B., M.S., P.C., T.M.K. and T.M.F. All authors contributed data, critically reviewed the manuscript and approved the final version for submission.

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Sailee P. Sakhalkar or Robert Tropek.

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Extended data

Extended Data Fig. 1 Sampling completeness of the analysed networks.

(a–j) Kernel density distributions of sampling completeness (%) for the all networks dataset (a), the full networks dataset (f), and individual functional groups in the functional-group networks dataset (b–e, g–j); panel labels report sample sizes (n). (k) Latitudinal distribution of low-completeness networks, shown as the proportion of networks with sampling completeness ≤ 0.7 in 10° latitudinal bins for each dataset and functional group in the functional-group networks dataset. Credit: Silhouettes from PhyloPic (https://www.phylopic.org/) under a Creative Commons license: Halictus rubicundus (CC BY 4.0); Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (CC0 1.0).

Extended Data Fig. 2 Latitudinal patterns in plant–pollinator specialisation metrics for the all networks dataset.

Panels show specialisation metrics: network-level H2’ (a); and community-mean species-level separated for pollinators (d’pollinators; b) and for plants (d’plants; c). Vertical dashed line marks the equator (0°), and vertical dotted lines mark the Tropics of Capricorn (-23.5°) and Cancer (23.5°). Curves are GAMM/HGAM fitted mean response smooths: black curves indicate overall latitudinal trends with 95% confidence intervals (grey shading), coloured curves represent significant functional group-specific trends (see legend). Coloured points are raw data. Curves are drawn only when the smooth term for latitude is significant, otherwise only points are shown. Adjusted R2 and exact p-values for the overall trend are reported in each panel (see Table S5 for full model summaries). We assessed the significance of smooth terms using two-sided approximate F-tests without correction for multiple comparisons. Credit: Silhouettes from PhyloPic (https://www.phylopic.org/) under a Creative Commons license: Onthophagus taurus, Darapsa myron (CC BY 3.0); Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris, Papilio machaon, Tachinidae, Eupeodes volucris, Vespula germanica (CC0 1.0).

Extended Data Fig. 3 Latitudinal distribution of plant–pollinator network descriptors.

Scatterplots show the values of climatic, environmental, and biotic descriptors for individual networks in the all networks dataset plotted against latitude; points are coloured by elevation. Descriptor definitions, abbreviations and units are given in Table S2. Credit: Silhouette from PhyloPic (https://www.phylopic.org/) under a Creative Commons license: Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (CC0 1.0).

Extended Data Fig. 4 Mean annual temperature as a function of latitude and elevation for the analysed plant-pollinator interaction networks.

Sampling sites are coloured by their elevation. The reported adjusted R2 and significance (***p < 0.001) originate from a linear model predicting mean annual temperature from absolute latitude and elevation (F3,3492 = 8879).

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Supplementary Figs. 1–4, Tables 1–9 and References.

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Sakhalkar, S.P., Blüthgen, N., Burkle, L.A. et al. Global patterns in plant–pollinator specialization.
Nat Ecol Evol (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-026-03170-7

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