Search

Menu
Search
in Ecology

A Middle Stone Age occupation identified at Baden-Baden in the grasslands of the Free State, South Africa

66 Views


Abstract

In southern Africa, Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 (~ 130 − 71 ka) is a crucial period in the evolution of Homo sapiens but poorly documented in the central interior of the subcontinent. We report here results from Baden-Baden 2, a newly discovered open-air site in the western Free State grasslands of South Africa that documents Middle Stone Age occupations dated to MIS 5. The lithic assemblage differs from known MIS 5 and post-MIS 5 industries and shows similarities with industries typically dated to MIS 6 (~ 191 − 130 ka). In order to geochronologically constrain the occupation of Baden-Baden 2, sediments for optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating were collected together with micromorphology blocks to correlate formation processes and luminescence data. Magnetic susceptibility and plant biomarker analyses were used to identify changes in sediment supply and reconstruct past environments, revealing a shift in sediment source or climate regime during the period of human occupation, which took place between 91 ± 8 ka and 75 ± 7 ka. The palaeoenvironment shows three relatively stable phases that match the three broad phases of sediment input identified. The combination of OSL and micromorphology shows extensive bioturbation due to termite activity in the whole sequence. We discuss here the issue of dating quartz grains in bioturbated contexts, using single grain analyses combined with the Finite Mixture Model. Our results suggest that sand at the site was deposited from 106 ± 8 ka, for the base of the sequence, to 120 ± 30 a, for the modern sample at the top. The Baden-Baden 2 assemblage overlaps temporally with different industries in other South African regions, underscoring the need for more systematic investigation of MIS 5 in the interior of South Africa.

Data availability

All data needed to validate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper and/or the Supplementary Information materials.

References

  1. Brooks, A. S. et al. Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age. Science 360, 90–94. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2646 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Deino, A. L. et al. Chronology of the Acheulean to Middle Stone Age transition in eastern Africa. Science 360, 95–98. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2216 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Wurz, S. Technological Trends in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa between MIS 7 and MIS 3. Curr. Anthropol. 54, 305–S319. https://doi.org/10.1086/673283 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Wadley, L. What Stimulated Rapid, Cumulative Innovation After 100,000 Years Ago? Journal Archaeol. Method Theory (2021).

  5. Lisiecki, L. E. & Raymo, M. E. A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records. Paleoceanography 20, PA1003. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001071 (2005).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Wadley, L. Those marvellous millennia: the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa. Azania: Archaeol. Res. Afr. 50, 155–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/0067270X.2015.1039236 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Mucina, L. & Rutherford, M. C. The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (South African National Biodiversity Institute, 2006).

  8. Wilkins, J. Homo sapiens origins and evolution in the Kalahari Basin, southern Africa. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues News Reviews 30, 327–344. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21914 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Toffolo, M. B. Pleistocene archaeology and environments of the Free State, South Africa. Azania: Archaeol. Res. Afr. 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/0067270X.2024.2379724 (2024).

  10. Ecker, M. et al. Archaeological survey near Tsabong, Kgalagadi District, southwestern Botswana. Azania: Archaeol. Res. Afr. 58, 517–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/0067270X.2023.2260150 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Lukich, V. & Ecker, M. Pleistocene environments in the southern Kalahari of South Africa. Quatern. Int. 614, 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2021.03.008 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Brink, J. S. in Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern Africa: Physical and Human Dimensions (eds J Knight & S W Grab) 284–305 Cambridge University Press, (2016).

  13. Cuartero Monteagudo, F., Richard, M., Rossouw, L. & Toffolo, M. B. Archaeological survey of the Modder River dongas, Free State, South Africa. South. Afr. Field Archaeol. 20 https://doi.org/10.36615/safa.20.3540.2025 (2025).

  14. Bousman, B. et al. in in Handbook of Pleistocene Archaeology of Africa: Hominin behavior, geography, and chronology. 1431–1450 (eds Beyin, A. Wright, D.K. Wilkins, J. & Olszewski, D.I.) (Springer International Publishing, 2023).

  15. Kuman, K., Inbar, M. & Clarke, R. J. Palaeoenvironments and Cultural Sequence of the Florisbad Middle Stone Age Hominid Site, South Africa. J. Archaeol. Sci. 26, 1409–1425. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1999.0439 (1999).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Lukich, V., Cowling, S. & Chazan, M. Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of Kathu Pan, South Africa, based on sedimentological data. Q. Sci. Rev. 230, 106153 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Toffolo, M. B., Brink, J. S., van Huyssteen, C. & Berna, F. A microstratigraphic reevaluation of the Florisbad spring site, Free State Province, South Africa: Formation processes and paleoenvironment. Geoarchaeology: Int. J. 32, 456–478. https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.21616 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Grün, R. et al. Direct dating of Florisbad hominid. Nature 382, 500–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/382500a0 (1996).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Tribolo, C. et al. Luminescence dating estimates for the coastal MSA sequence of Hoedjiespunt 1 (South Africa). J. Archaeol. Science: Rep. 41, 103320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103320 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Porat, N. et al. New radiometric ages for the Fauresmith industry from Kathu Pan, southern Africa: Implications for the Earlier to Middle Stone Age transition. J. Archaeol. Sci. 37, 269–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2009.09.038 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Lukich, V., Porat, N., Faershtein, G., Cowling, S. & Chazan, M. New Chronology and Stratigraphy for Kathu Pan 6, South Africa. J. Paleolithic Archaeol. 2, 265–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-019-00031-7 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Tribolo, C. et al. Chronology of the Pleistocene deposits at Elands Bay Cave (South Africa) based on charcoals, burnt lithics, and sedimentary quartz and feldspar grains. South. Afr. Humanit. 29, 129–152 (2016). https://www.sahumanities.org/index.php/sah/article/view/412

    Google Scholar 

  23. Mackay, A. et al. The Middle Stone Age Sequence at Klipfonteinrand 1 (KFR1), Western Cape, South Africa. J. Paleolithic Archaeol. 6, 20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-023-00147-x (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Jacobs, Z. et al. Ages for the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: implications for human behavior and dispersal. Science 322, 733–735. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1162219 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Richard, M., Chazan, M. & Porat, N. Single grain TT-OSL ages for the Earlier Stone Age site of Bestwood 1 (Northern Cape Province, South Africa). Quatern. Int. 614, 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2020.08.019 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Wroth, K. et al. Human occupation of the semi-arid grasslands of South Africa during MIS 4: New archaeological and paleoecological evidence from Lovedale, Free State. Q. Sci. Rev. 283, 107455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107455 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Karkanas, P. & Goldberg, P. Reconstructing Archaeological Sites: Understanding the Geoarchaeological Matrix (Wiley Blackwell, 2019).

  28. Lyons, R., Tooth, S. & Duller, G. A. T. Late Quaternary climatic changes revealed by luminescence dating, mineral magnetism and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy of river terrace palaeosols: a new form of geoproxy data for the southern African interior. Q. Sci. Rev. 95, 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.04.021 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Richard, M. et al. Investigating the effect of diagenesis on ESR dating of Middle Stone Age tooth samples from the open-air site of Lovedale, Free State, South Africa. Quat. Geochronol. 69, 101269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2022.101269 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Herries, A. I. R. A Chronological Perspective on the Acheulian and Its Transition to the Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa: The Question of the Fauresmith. Int. J. Evolutionary Biology. 2011 (961401). https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/961401 (2011).

  31. Archer, W. et al. Late Acheulean occupations at Montagu Cave and the pattern of Middle Pleistocene behavioral change in Western Cape, southern Africa. J. Hum. Evol. 184, 103435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103435 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Kuman, K., Lotter, M. G. & Leader, G. M. The Fauresmith of South Africa: A new assemblage from Canteen Kopje and significance of the technology in human and cultural evolution. J. Hum. Evol. 148, 102884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102884 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Meiring, A. J. D. The Macrolithic Culture of Florisbad. Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein. 1, 205–237 (1956).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Kuman, K. Florisbad and ≠ Gi: the contribution of open-air sites to the study of Middle Stone Age in southern Africa PhD diss. thesis, University of Pennsylvania, (1989).

  35. van Aardt, A. C. et al. First chronological, palaeoenvironmental, and archaeological data from the Baden-Baden fossil spring complex in the western Free State, South Africa. Palaeoecology Afr. 33, 117–152. https://doi.org/10.1201/b19410 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Marshall, T. R. & Harmse, J. T. A review of the origin and propagation of pans. South. Afr. Geogr. 19, 9–21 (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Marshall, T. R. The origin of the pans of the western Orange Free State – A Morphotectonic Study of the palaeo-Kimberley River. Palaeoecol. Afr. 19, 97–108 (1988).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Grobler, N. J., Loock, J. C. & Behounek, N. J. Development of pans in paleodrainage in the north-western Orange Free State. Palaeoecol. Afr. 19, 87–96 (1988).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Tribolo, C., Mercier, N., Rasse, M., Soriano, S. & Huysecom, E. Kobo 1 and L’Abri aux Vaches (Mali, West Africa): Two case studies for the optical dating of bioturbated sediments. Quat. Geochronol. 5, 317–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2009.03.002 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Rink, W. J. et al. Subterranean transport and deposition of quartz by ants in sandy sites relevant to age overestimation in optical luminescence dating. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 2217–2226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.11.006 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Galbraith, R. F. & Green, P. F. Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Int. J. Rad. Appl. Instrum. D. 17, 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-0189(90)90035-V (1990).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Galbraith, R. F. Statistics for Fission Track Analysis (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 2005).

  43. Galbraith, R. F. & Roberts, R. G. Statistical aspects of equivalent dose and error calculation and display in OSL dating: An overview and some recommendations. Quat. Geochronol. 11, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2012.04.020 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Arnold, L. J. & Roberts, R. G. Stochastic modelling of multi-grain equivalent dose (De) distributions: Implications for OSL dating of sediment mixtures. Quat. Geochronol. 4, 204–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2008.12.001 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Jacobs, Z., Wintle, A. G., Duller, G. A. T., Roberts, R. G. & Wadley, L. New ages for the post-Howiesons Poort, late and final Middle Stone Age at Sibudu, South Africa. J. Archaeol. Sci. 35, 1790–1807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.028 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Chazan, M., Porat, N., Sumner, T. A. & Horwitz, L. K. The use of OSL dating in unstructured sands: the archaeology and chronology of the Hutton Sands at Canteen Kopje (Northern Cape Province, South Africa). Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 5, 351–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-013-0118-7 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Roberts, R. G., Galbraith, R. F., Yoshida, H., Laslett, G. M. & Olley, J. M. Distinguishing dose populations in sediment mixtures: a test of single-grain optical dating procedures using mixtures of laboratory-dosed quartz. Radiat. Meas. 32, 459–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1350-4487(00)00104-9 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Tribolo, C., Rasse, M., Soriano, S. & Huysecom, E. Defining a chronological framework for the Middle Stone Age in West Africa: Comparison of methods and models for OSL ages at Ounjougou (Mali). Quat. Geochronol. 29, 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2015.05.013 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Demuro, M., Arnold, L. J., Aranburu, A., Sala, N. & Arsuaga, J. L. New bracketing luminescence ages constrain the Sima de los Huesos hominin fossils (Atapuerca, Spain) to MIS 12. J. Hum. Evol. 131, 76–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.12.003 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Galbraith, R. F., Roberts, R. G., Laslett, G. M., Yoshida, H. & Olley, J. M. Optical dating of single and multiple grains of quartz from Jinmium rock shelter, northern Australia: Part I, experimental details and statistical models. Archaeometry 41, 339–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.1999.tb00987.x (1999).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Guérin, G., Mercier, N. & Adamiec, G. Dose-rate conversion factors: update. Anc. TL. 29, 5–8. https://doi.org/10.26034/la.atl.2011.443 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Prescott, J. R. & Hutton, J. T. Cosmic ray and gamma ray dosimetry for TL and ESR. Int. J. Rad. Appl. Instrum. D. 14, 223–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-0189(88)90069-6 (1988).

    Google Scholar 

  53. Guérin, G., Mercier, N., Nathan, R., Adamiec, G. & Lefrais, Y. On the use of the infinite matrix assumption and associated concepts: A critical review. Radiat. Meas. 47, 778–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radmeas.2012.04.004 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Brennan, B. J., Lyons, R. G. & Phillips, S. W. Attenuation of alpha particle track dose for spherical grains. Int. J. Rad. Appl. Instrum. D. 18, 249–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-0189(91)90119-3 (1991).

    Google Scholar 

  55. Valladas, H. & Valladas, G. Effet de l’irradiation alpha sur des grains de quartz. PACT 6, 171–178 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Schmid, V. C., Conard, N. J., Parkington, J. E., Texier, P. J. & Porraz, G. The ‘MSA 1’ of Elands Bay Cave (South Africa) in the context of the southern African Early MSA technologies. South. Afr. Humanit. 29, 153–201 (2016). https://www.sahumanities.org/index.php/sah/article/view/411

    Google Scholar 

  57. Lombard, M. et al. The southern African Stone Age sequence updated (II). South. Afr. Archaeol. Bull. 77, 172–212 (2022). https://www.jstor.org/stable/27200587

    Google Scholar 

  58. Möller, G. H. D. et al. Revisited and Revalorised: Technological and Refitting Studies at the Middle Stone Age Open-Air Knapping Site Jojosi 1 (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa). J. Paleolithic Archaeol. 8, 5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-024-00205-y (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  59. O’Driscoll, C. A. & Mackay, A. On the Operation of Retouch in Southern Africa’s Early Middle Stone Age. J. Paleolithic Archaeol. 3, 1149–1179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-020-00072-3 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  60. Conard, N. J., Soressi, M., Parkington, J. E., Sarah, W. & Yates, R. A. Unified Lithic Taxonomy Based on Patterns of Core Reduction. South. Afr. Archaeol. Bull. 59, 12–16. https://doi.org/10.2307/3889318 (2004).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Boëda, E. & Audouze, F. Techno-logique & Technologie: une paléo-histoire des objets lithiques tranchants (@rchéo-éditions, 2013).

  62. Pye, K. & Tsoar, H. Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes (Springer-, 2009).

  63. Vepraskas, M. J., Lindbo, D. L. & Stolt, M. H. in Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths (eds G Stoops, V Marcelino, & F Mees) 425–446 (Elsevier, 2018).

  64. Guérin, G. et al. Absorbed dose, equivalent dose, measured dose rates, and implications for OSL age estimates: Introducing the Average Dose Model. Quat. Geochronol. 41, 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2017.04.002 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  65. Mücher, H. J. & De Ploey, J. Experimental and micromorphological investigation of erosion and redeposition of loess by water. Earth Surf. Processes. 2, 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290020204 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  66. Mücher, H. J. & De Ploey, J. Formation of afterflow silt loam deposits and structural modification due to drying under warm conditions: an experimental and micromorphological approach. Earth. Surf. Proc. Land. 9, 523–531. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290090606 (1984).

    Google Scholar 

  67. Jha, D. K. et al. Preservation of plant-wax biomarkers in deserts: implications for Quaternary environment and human evolutionary studies. J. Quat. Sci. 39, 349–358. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3597 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  68. Geppert, M. et al. Precipitation Over Southern Africa: Moisture Sources and Isotopic Composition. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 127, e2022JD037005 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD037005

  69. Patalano, R. et al. Ecological stability of Late Pleistocene-to-Holocene Lesotho, southern Africa, facilitated human upland habitation. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, 129. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00784-8 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  70. Rommerskirchen, F., Eglinton, G., Dupont, L. & Rullkötter, J. Glacial/interglacial changes in southern Africa: Compound-specific δ13C land plant biomarker and pollen records from southeast Atlantic continental margin sediments. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 7 https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GC001223 (2006).

  71. Boom, A., Carr, A. S., Chase, B. M., Grimes, H. L. & Meadows, M. E. Leaf wax n-alkanes and δ13C values of CAM plants from arid southwest Africa. Org. Geochem. 67, 99–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2013.12.005 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  72. Wang, Y. V. et al. What does leaf wax δD from a mixed C3/C4 vegetation region tell us? Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 111, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2012.10.016 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  73. Bush, R. T. & McInerney, F. A. Influence of temperature and C4 abundance on n-alkane chain length distributions across the central USA. Org. Geochem. 79, 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2014.12.003 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  74. Liu, W., Yang, H. & Li, L. Hydrogen isotopic compositions of n-alkanes from terrestrial plants correlate with their ecological life forms. Oecologia 150, 330–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-006-0494-0 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  75. Burdanowitz, N., Dupont, L., Zabel, M. & Schefuß, E. Holocene hydrologic and vegetation developments in the Orange River catchment (South Africa) and their controls. Holocene 28, 1288–1300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683618771484 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  76. Carr, A. S. et al. Leaf wax n-alkane distributions in arid zone South African flora: Environmental controls, chemotaxonomy and palaeoecological implications. Org. Geochem. 67, 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2013.12.004 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  77. Herrmann, N. et al. Sources, transport and deposition of terrestrial organic material: A case study from southwestern Africa. Q. Sci. Rev. 149, 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.07.028 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  78. Liu, J. et al. Effects of plant types on terrestrial leaf wax long-chain n-alkane biomarkers: Implications and paleoapplications. Earth Sci. Rev. 235, 104248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104248 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  79. Herrmann, N. et al. Hydrogen isotope fractionation of leaf wax n-alkanes in southern African soils. Org. Geochem. 109, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2017.03.008 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  80. Sachse, D., Radke, J. & Gleixner, G. δD values of individual n-alkanes from terrestrial plants along a climatic gradient – Implications for the sedimentary biomarker record. Org. Geochem. 37, 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.12.003 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  81. Ficken, K. J., Li, B., Swain, D. L. & Eglinton, G. An n-alkane proxy for the sedimentary input of submerged/floating freshwater aquatic macrophytes. Org. Geochem. 31, 745–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0146-6380(00)00081-4 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  82. Brink, J. S. & Henderson, Z. L. in in Settlement dynamics of the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. 1–20 (eds Conard, N. J.) (Kerns, 2001).

  83. Henderson, Z. The integrity of the Middle Stone Age Horizon at Florisbad, South Africa. Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein 17, 25–52 (2001).

    Google Scholar 

  84. Douze, K., Wurz, S. & Henshilwood, C. S. Techno-Cultural Characterization of the MIS 5 (c. 105–90 Ka) Lithic Industries at Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa. PLOS ONE 10, e0142151 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142151

  85. Backwell, R. L. et al. New Excavations at Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. J. Field Archaeol. 43, 417–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2018.1504544 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  86. Wurz, S. Variability in the Middle Stone Age Lithic Sequence, 115,000–60,000 Years Ago at Klasies River, South Africa. J. Archaeol. Sci. 29, 1001–1015. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2001.0799 (2002).

    Google Scholar 

  87. Porraz, G. et al. Technological successions in the Middle Stone Age sequence of Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 3376–3400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.02.012 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  88. Beaumont Peter, B. & Vogel John, C. On a timescale for the past million years of human history in central South Africa. South Afr. J. Sci. 102, 217–228 (2006). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC96546

    Google Scholar 

  89. Thompson, E., Williams, H. M. & Minichillo, T. Middle and late Pleistocene Middle Stone Age lithic technology from Pinnacle Point 13B (Mossel Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa). J. Hum. Evol. 59, 358–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.009 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  90. Lombard, M., Schlebusch, C. & Soodyall, H. Bridging disciplines to better elucidate the evolution of early Homo sapiens in southern Africa. South Afr. J. Sci. 109, 8. https://doi.org/10.1590/sajs.2013/20130065 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  91. Mackay, A. et al. Environmental influences on human innovation and behavioural diversity in southern Africa 92–80 thousand years ago. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 6, 361–369. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01667-5 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  92. Steele, T. E. et al. Varsche Rivier 003: A Middle and Later Stone Age Site with Still Bay and Howiesons Poort Assemblages in Southern Namaqualand, South Africa. PaleoAnthropology, 100–163 (2016).

  93. O’Driscoll, C. A. & Mackay, A. Middle Stone Age technology from MIS 6 and MIS 5 at Klipfonteinrand 1, South Africa. Q. Sci. Rev. 318, 108289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108289 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  94. Riedesel, S. et al. A direct comparison of single-grain and multi-grain aliquot luminescence dating of feldspars from colluvial deposits in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Geochronology 7, 59–81. https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-7-59-2025 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  95. Wurz, S. Technocomplexes and chronostratigraphy for MIS 6 – 1 in southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Geol. 124, 1083–1092. https://doi.org/10.25131/sajg.124.0058 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  96. Pienaar, M., Woodborne, S. & Wadley, L. Optically stimulated luminescence dating at Rose Cottage Cave. South Afr. J. Sci. 104, 65–70 (2008). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC96762

    Google Scholar 

  97. Schmid, V. C. et al. Renewed impetus for Stone Age research in the Eastern Free State (South Africa) centred on Rose Cottage Cave. South. Afr. Archaeol. Bull. 79, 105–119 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  98. Richard, M. et al. New ESR dates from Lovedale, Free State, South Africa: implications for the study of tooth diagenesis. South. Afr. Archaeol. Bull. 78, 95–103 (2023). https://www.jstor.org/stable/27303676

    Google Scholar 

  99. Toffolo, M. B. Infrared Spectroscopy of Archaeological Sediments (Cambridge University Press, 2025). https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009387590

  100. Stoops, G. Guidelines for Analysis and Description of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections https://doi.org/10.1002/9780891189763Second ed. (Wiley, 2021).

  101. Stoops, G., Marcelino, V. & Mees, F. Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths. Second edn, https://doi.org/10.1016/C2014-0-01728-5 (Elsevier, 2018).

  102. Verrecchia, E. P. & Trombino, L. A visual atlas for soil micromorphologists. Springer Nat. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67806-7 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  103. Flügel, E. Microfacies of carbonate rocks: Analysis, interpretation and application (Springer, 2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-08726-8

  104. Murray, A. S. & Wintle, A. G. Luminescence dating of quartz using an improved single-aliquot regenerative-dose protocol. Radiat. Meas. 32, 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1350-4487(99)00253-X (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  105. Duller, G. A. T. Assessing the error on equivalent dose estimates derived from single aliquot regenerative dose measurements. Anc. TL. 25, 15–24 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  106. Luminescence Comprehensive Luminescence Dating Data Analysis v. R package version 1.1.0 (2025).

  107. Peng, J., Li, B. & Jacobs, Z. Andrew Gliganic, L. Optical dating of sediments affected by post-depositional mixing: Modelling, synthesizing and implications. CATENA 232, 107383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107383 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  108. Mercier, N. & Falguères, C. Field gamma dose-rate measurement with a NaI(Tl) detector: re-evaluation of the threshold technique. Anc. TL. 25, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.26034/la.atl.2007.400 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  109. Inizan, M. L., Reduron-Ballinger, M., Roche, H. & Tixier, J. Technology and terminology of knapped stone: Followed by a multilingual vocabulary Arabic, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish Vol. 5 (Cercle de Recherches et d’Etudes Préhistoriques, 1999).

  110. Bordes, F. Typologie du Paléolithique ancien et moyen. CNRS, (1979).

  111. Boëda, E. Le débitage discoïde et le débitage Levallois récurrent centripède. Bull. de la. Société préhistorique française. 392–404. https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1993.9669 (1993).

  112. Geneste, J. M. Analyse lithique d’industries moustériennes du Périgord: une approche technologique du comportement des groupes humains au Paléolithique moyen Ph.D. thesis, Université de Bordeaux, (1985).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The fieldwork leading to this article was conducted under the auspices of the National Museum Bloemfontein. Excavations at Baden-Baden 2 were conducted under permit 4095 issued by the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA). Export of sediment samples took place under permits 4212 and 4164 issued by SAHRA. Mr Nellis Nel, owner of the Baden-Baden farm, is kindly acknowledged for his permission to conduct fieldwork. The authors wish to thank Lloyd Rossouw, Felipe Cuartero, Thys Uys, Jacob Maine, and Johannes Motshabi for their help during fieldwork, Pauline Dugas and Carlos Sáiz for the preparation of micromorphology thin sections, and Ema Rafins and Jeanne Maucourt for help preparing OSL samples. We are grateful to Josep Parés for the use of the magnetism laboratory at the Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana.

Funding

This research was funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Council Executive Agency. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. This work is supported by a European Research Council grant (PEOPLE, n. 101039711, DOI: 10.3030/101039711″). Michael Toffolo was supported also by the grant RYC2021-030917-I funded by the MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by the “European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR”. Maïlys Richard received funding from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Archéosciences Bordeaux, UMR 6034 CNRS-Bordeaux Montaigne University, Esplanade des Antilles, Pessac, 33607, France

    Maïlys Richard, Beatrice Bin, Benoit Longet & Michael B. Toffolo

  2. Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Burgsteige 11, 72070, Tübingen, Germany

    Maïlys Richard

  3. Geochronology and Geology Programme, National Research Centre on Human Evolution (CENIEH), Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, Burgos, 09002, Spain

    Beatrice Bin, Benoit Longet & Michael B. Toffolo

  4. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology, Kiel University, Johanna- Mestorf-Straße 2-6, 24118, Kiel, Germany

    Michaela Ecker

  5. Archaeology Department, McGregor Museum, Atlas Street, Kimberley, 8301, South Africa

    Michaela Ecker

  6. Leibniz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research, Kiel University, Max-Eyth-Straße 11-13, 24118, Kiel, Germany

    Nils Andersen

  7. Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Max Planck Partner Group, National Museum Bloemfontein, Bloemfontein, 9301, South Africa

    Will Archer

  8. Florisbad Quaternary Research Station, National Museum Bloemfontein, Bloemfontein, 9301, South Africa

    Will Archer, Myra Gohodzi & Sharon Holt

  9. Department of Geology, University of the Free State, Zastron Street, Bloemfontein, 9301, South Africa

    Will Archer

  10. Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, 2110 G St. NW, Washington, DC, 20052, USA

    Will Archer

  11. Department of Anthropology, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX, 78666-4684, USA

    C. Britt Bousman

  12. Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State, Zastron Street, Bloemfontein, 9301, South Africa

    Michael B. Toffolo

Authors

  1. Maïlys Richard
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Beatrice Bin
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Benoit Longet
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michaela Ecker
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Nils Andersen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Will Archer
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Myra Gohodzi
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Sharon Holt
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  9. C. Britt Bousman
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Michael B. Toffolo
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Research design: M.R. and M.B.T.; Data acquisition: M.R., B.B., B.L., M.E., N.A., M.G., S.H. and C.B.B; Analysis: M.R., B.B., B.L., M.E. and N.A.; Interpretation: M.R., B.B., B.L., M.E., N.A. and M.B.T.; Supervision: M.R., W.A. and M.B.T.; All authors contributed to write the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to
Maïlys Richard.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1 (download XLSX )

Supplementary Material 2

Supplementary Material 3 (download PDF )

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Richard, M., Bin, B., Longet, B. et al. A Middle Stone Age occupation identified at Baden-Baden in the grasslands of the Free State, South Africa.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-43246-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-43246-9

Keywords

  • Middle Stone Age
  • Free State
  • South Africa
  • Luminescence
  • Bioturbation
  • Finite Mixture Model

Supplementary Material 2

Source: Ecology - nature.com

Wildfire risk for species under climate change

Intelligent irrigation management system for arid and semi-arid regions under climate change

This portal is not a newspaper as it is updated without periodicity. It cannot be considered an editorial product pursuant to law n. 62 of 7.03.2001. The author of the portal is not responsible for the content of comments to posts, the content of the linked sites. Some texts or images included in this portal are taken from the internet and, therefore, considered to be in the public domain; if their publication is violated, the copyright will be promptly communicated via e-mail. They will be immediately removed.

Back to Top
Close