in

Evaluating the growth and water use efficiency of chili pepper ‘Tanjung’, ‘Unpad’, and ‘Osaka’ using SFM1 sap flow in agro-environment


Abstract

Water use efficiency in horticultural crops is necessary for sustainable agriculture, especially under changing micro climate conditions. This study assesses the water use efficiency (WUE), growth, and physiological performance of three chili cultivars (Tanjung, Unpad, and Osaka-3) under various conditions of agro-environment. The experiment was carried out from December 2023 to May 2024 at Universitas Padjadjaran in Indonesia, using a factorial randomized complete block design with 432 plants spread among four conditions of agro-environment: greenhouse, rain shelter, screen house, and open field. Plants were given nutrient solutions in varied quantities based on evapotranspiration (ETc) in four conditions of agro-environment. a Sap Flow Meter (SFM1) with the Heat Pulse Velocity technique measure volume of nutrient solution for watering the plants which was predicted using a soil water balance model. The results revealed interaction and significant effect of cultivar and four conditions of agro-environment that influenced water intake, sap flow, and growth. Osaka had the highest water sap velocity, indicating intense transpiration, particularly in the screen house and open field. Tanjung performed best in the screen house, with the maximum WUE (2.0 g/L) and absolute growth rate (> 0.60 cm/day), despite the low water usage. Correlations between sap velocity and water consumption for absolute growth rate (AGR) was 0.68* and WUE was 0.59. These findings emphasize the significance of controlled conditions of agro-environment designs to maximize water use efficiency and maintain chili productivity.

Data availability

The data will be made available on reasonable request to corresponding author ([email protected]) if required.

References

  1. Dannehl, D., Huber, C., Rocksch, T., Huyskens-Keil, S. & Schmidt, U. Interactions between changing climate conditions in a semi-closed greenhouse and plant development, fruit yield, and health-promoting plant compounds of tomatoes. Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 138, 235–243 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Mohawesh, O. et al. Effect of colored shading Nets on the growth and water use efficiency of sweet pepper grown under Semi-arid conditions. Horttechnology 32, 21–27 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Widowati, I., Dhamira, A., Anggrasari, H. & Seleky, R. N. Climatic Factors Production: One Climate Change and Its Effect on Chili Step Forward Combating. 04001, 1–7 (2023).

  4. Zamljen, T., Zupanc, V. & Slatnar, A. Influence of irrigation on yield and primary and secondary metabolites in two chilies species, capsicum annuum L. and capsicum Chinense Jacq. Agric. Water Manag. 234, 106104 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Ampatzidis, Y., De Bellis, L., Luvisi, A. & iPathology Robotic applications and management of plants and plant diseases. Sustain 9, 1–14 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Rajasekar, M., Arumugam, T. & Kumar, S. R. Influence of weather and growing environment on vegetable growth and yield. J. Hortic. For. 5, 160–167 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Patanè, C. & Saita, A. Biomass, fruit yield, water productivity and quality response of processing tomato to plant density and deficit irrigation under a semi-arid mediterranean climate. Crop Pasture Sci. 66, 224–234 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Camejo, D. et al. High temperature effects on photosynthetic activity of two tomato cultivars with different heat susceptibility. J. Plant. Physiol. 162, 281–289 (2005).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Putra, G. M. D., Sutiarso, L. & Nugroho, A. P. & Ngadisih. Correlation coefficient Estimation of red Chili (Capsicum annuum L) stomatal parameters under shade treatment condition. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 1182, 012001 (2023).

  10. Okunlola, G. O., Akinwale, R. O. & Adelusi, A. A. Proline and soluble sugars accumulation in three pepper species (Capsicum spp) in response to water stress imposed at different stages of growth. Sci. Cold Arid Reg. 8, 205–211 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Maida, P. & Kumar, U. Combination effect of mulch and irrigation schedule on performance of Chilli under drip irrigation condition. J. Pharmacogn 9, 2639–2644 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Lestari, P., Syukur, M., Widiyono, W. & Trikoesoemaningtyas & Genetic variability and path analysis of Chili (Capsicum annuum L.) associated characters under drought stress from vegetative to generative phases. Biodiversitas 24, 2315–2323 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Cheng, Y. et al. Effects of storage temperature at the early postharvest stage on the Firmness, bioactive Substances, and amino acid compositions of Chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L). Metabolites 13, 820 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Soleh, M. A., Ariyanti, M., Dewi, I. R. & Kadapi, M. Chlorophyll fluorescence and stomatal conductance of ten sugarcane varieties under waterlogging and fluctuation light intensity. Emirates J. Food Agric. 30, 935–940 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Nurhaya, N., Syam, A. & Jafar, J. Stomata density analysis of red Chili (Capsicum annuum L.) at different location. Agrotech J. 6, 87–94 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Gençoğlan, C., Akinci, İ. E., Uçan, K., Akinci, S. & Gençoğlan, S. Response of red hot pepper plant (Capsicum annuum L.) to the deficit irrigation. K ı rm ı z ı Ac ı Biber Bitkisinin (Capsicum annuum L.) K ı s ı nt ı l ı Sulamaya Tepkisi. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 17(6), 923–932 (2006).

  17. Van Der Ploeg, A. & Heuvelink, E. Influence of sub-optimal temperature on tomato growth and yield: A review. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 80, 652–659 (2005).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Saputri, M., Oktaria, Q., Junaidi, A. & Ardiansyah, M. A. Effect of light intensity and sound intensity on the growth of various types of Chili in indoor system. J. Penelit Pendidik IPA. 9, 6330–6336 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Molina-Aiz, F. D., Valera, D. L., López, A., Álvarez, A. J. & Escamirosa, C. Effects of insect-proof screens used in greenhouse on microclimate and fruit yield of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in a mediterranean climate. Acta Hortic. 927, 707–714 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Katsoulas, N., Sapounas, A., De Zwart, F., Dieleman, J. A. & Stanghellini, C. Reducing ventilation requirements in semi-closed greenhouses increases water use efficiency. Agric. Water Manag. 156, 90–99 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Kotilainen, T., Robson, M., Hernández, R. & T. & Light quality characterization under climate screens and shade Nets for controlled-environment agriculture. PLoS One. 13, 1–22 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Riaz, A., Yasin, Ahmad, M. S., Sattar, A. & Mehmood, N. Molecular identification of Colletotrichum capsici isolates and development of mathematical model for Chilli anthracnose dynamics in Semi-Arid climate of the Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan J. Bot. 55, 1539–1544 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Saha, S. R., Hossain, M. M., Rahman, M. M., Kuo, C. G. & Abdullah, S. Effect of high temperature stress on the. Bangladesh J. Agril Res. 35, 525–534 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Villagran, E. & Jaramillo, J. E. Microclimatic behavior of a screen house proposed for horticultural production in low-altitude tropical climate conditions. Comun. Sci. 11, 1–10 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Tanny, J. Microclimate and evapotranspiration of crops covered by agricultural screens: A review. Biosyst Eng. 114, 26–43 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Ahmad, F., Kusumiyati, K., Soleh, M. A., Khan, M. R. & Sundari, R. S. Chili crop innovation: exploring enclosed growing designs for varied varieties — A review. 1–11 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/agg2.20491

  27. Shamshiri, R. R. et al. Review of optimum temperature, humidity, and vapour pressure deficit for microclimate evaluation and control in greenhouse cultivation of tomato: A review. Int. Agrophysics. 32, 287–302 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Kabir, M. Y., Nambeesan, S. U., Bautista, J. & Díaz-Pérez, J. C. Effect of irrigation level on plant growth, physiology and fruit yield and quality in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 281, (2021).

  29. Gong, X., Liu, H., Sun, J., Gao, Y. & Zhang, H. Comparison of Shuttleworth-Wallace model and dual crop coefficient method for estimating evapotranspiration of tomato cultivated in a solar greenhouse. Agric. Water Manag. 217, 141–153 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Rosales, M. A. et al. Environmental conditions in relation to stress in Cherry tomato fruits in two experimental mediterranean greenhouses. J. Sci. Food Agric. 89, 735–742 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Wu, Y. et al. Responses of growth, fruit yield, quality and water productivity of greenhouse tomato to deficit drip irrigation. Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 275, 109710 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Sun, Q., Wang, Y., Chen, G., Yang, H. & Du, T. Water use efficiency was improved at leaf and yield levels of tomato plants by continuous irrigation using semipermeable membrane. Agric. Water Manag. 203, 430–437 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Giuliani, M. M., Nardella, E., Gagliardi, A. & Gatta, G. Deficit irrigation and partial root-zone drying techniques in processing tomato cultivated under mediterranean climate conditions. Sustain 9, 8–10 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Fallik, E. et al. How water quality and quantity affect pepper yield and postharvest quality. Horticulturae 5, 4–13 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Jinagool, W. & Arom, P. Influence of watering regimes on physiological Traits, Growth, Yield, and capsaicin content of chilies. ASEAN J. Sci. Technol. Rep. 26, 20–31 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Vijayakumar, G., Tamilmani, D. & Selvaraj, P. K. Maximizing water and fertilizer use efficiencies under drip irrigation in Chili crop. J. Manag Public. Policy. 2, 85–95 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Khan, A. et al. Coping with drought: stress and adaptive mechanisms, and management through cultural and molecular alternatives in cotton as vital constituents for plant stress resilience and fitness. Biol. Res. 51, 1–17 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Ahmad, F., Kusumiyati, K., Soleh, M. A., Khan, M. R. & Sundari, R. S. Microclimates growing and watering volumes influences the physiological traits of Chili pepper cultivars in combating abiotic stress. Sci. Rep. 15, 1–17 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Boulard, T. & Wang, S. Greenhouse crop transpiration simulation from external climate conditions. Agric. Meteorol. 100, 25–34 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Deligios, P. A. et al. Modeling tomato growth and production in a photovoltaic greenhouse in Southern Italy. Acta Hortic. 1182, 203–210 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Wu, W. et al. Modeling the Effects of Irrigation and Its Interaction with Silicon on Quinoa Seed Yield and Water Use Efficiency in Arid Regions. Agron. 2024,14, 2088 (2024).

  42. Michael, G. T., Turnip, M., Muniarti, E., Sitompul, E. & Turnip, A. Development of an irrigation system for predicting watering time with ANFIS method for Chili plants. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 1083, 1–10 (2022).

  43. Goto, K., Yabuta, S., Ssenyonga, P., Tamaru, S. & Sakagami, J. I. Response of leaf water potential, stomatal conductance and chlorophyll content under different levels of soil water, air vapor pressure deficit and solar radiation in Chili pepper (Capsicum chinense). Sci Hortic. (Amsterdam) 281, 1–11 (2021).

  44. Aziz, M. et al. A sustainable irrigation system for small landholdings of rainfed punjab, Pakistan. Sustain 13, 1–15 (2021).

  45. Duah, S. A. et al. Effect of water supply on physiological response and phytonutrient composition of Chili peppers. Water (Switzerland) 13, 1284 (2021).

  46. Farooq, M. et al. Physiological role of exogenously applied Glycinebetaine to improve drought tolerance in fine grain aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L). J. Agron. Crop Sci. 194, 325–333 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Shongwe, V. D., Magongo, B. N., Masarirambi, M. T. & Manyatsi, A. M. Effects of irrigation moisture regimes on yield and quality of Paprika (Capsicum annuum L). Phys. Chem. Earth. 35, 717–722 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Asadi, S., Lebaschy, M. H., Khourgami, A., Hosein, A. & Rad, S. Effect of drought stress on the morphology of three salvia sclarea populations. Ann. Biol. Res. 3, 4503–4507 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Guang-Cheng, S., Na, L., Zhan-Yu, Z. & Shuang-En, Y. Chang-ren, C. Growth, yield and water use efficiency response of greenhouse-grown hot pepper under Time-Space deficit irrigation. Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 126, 172–179 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Fernández, M. D. et al. Water use and production of a greenhouse pepper crop under optimum and limited water supply. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 80, 87–96 (2005).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Chen, J. et al. Quantitative response of greenhouse tomato yield and quality to water deficit at different growth stages. Agric. Water Manag. 129, 152–162 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Jain, S. et al. A comprehensive review on protected cultivation of horticultural crops: present status and future prospects. Int. J. Environ. Clim. Chang. 13, 3521–3531 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  53. Ahmad, F., Kusumiyati, K., Soleh, M. A., Khan, M. R. & Sundari, R. S. Watering volume and growing design’s effect on the productivity and quality of Cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum cerasiformae) cultivar Ruby. Agronomy 13, 2417 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Ilić, Z. S. & Fallik, E. Light quality manipulation improves vegetable quality at harvest and postharvest: A review. Environ. Exp. Bot. 139, 79–90 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  55. Ahemd, H. A., Al-Faraj, A. A. & Abdel-Ghany, A. M. Shading greenhouses to improve the microclimate, energy and water saving in hot regions: A review. Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 201, 36–45 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Kirda, C. et al. Yield response of greenhouse grown tomato to partial root drying and conventional deficit irrigation. Agric. Water Manag. 69, 191–201 (2004).

    Google Scholar 

  57. Abdila, W. P., Nugroho, B. D. A. & Setyawan, C. Effect of Extreem rainfall pattern on the growth and yield of Chili peppers. J. Tek Pertan Lampung (Journal Agric. Eng. 11, 117 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  58. Katsoulas, N., Rigakis, N., Kitta, E. & Baille, A. Transpiration and canopy conductance of a pepper crop under screens with different porosity and shading intensity. Acta Hortic. 1037, 547–554 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  59. Tsai, W. A., Shafiei-Peters, J. R., Mitter, N. & Dietzgen, R. G. Effects of Elevated Temperature on the Susceptibility of Capsicum Plants to Capsicum Chlorosis Virus Infection. Pathogens 11, (2022).

  60. Eunice Bacelar, T. P. F C Qual. Plants 13, 1–40 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Mudiyanti, R., Aminudin, A. & Hasanah, L. Design watering system on greenhouse using microcontroller with matrix based. J Phys. Conf. Ser. 1280, 1–6 (2019).

  62. Liu, N., Wei, Z. & Wei, H. The effect of planting mode on the growth of pepper in a sunlight greenhouse. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 692, 1–5 (2021).

  63. Luan, X. & Vico, G. Canopy temperature and heat stress are increased by compound high air temperature and water stress and reduced by irrigation-a modeling analysis. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 25, 1411–1423 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  64. Subiastuti, A. S., Putri, A. C., Permadani, C. G. & Daryono, B. S. Effect of screen house on disease severity and coat protein diversity of Begomovirus-infected capsicum frutescens L. Cempluk’ from Indonesia. Pertanika J. Trop. Agric. Sci. 44, 449–463 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  65. Sumiyati, Madrini, I. A. G. B. & Tika, I. W. The effect of screen materials on the microclimate and growth of Chili pepper plant. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 824, 1–7 (2021).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are highly grateful for the unprecedented assistance provided by the members of the PT. LABODIA PRIMA. Their technical assistance in installing, calibrating weekly, and maintaining the Sap Flow Meter (SFM1) equipment was central to the study’s success in determining plant water uptake and sap velocity. We greatly acknowledge their daily commitment to quality data acquisition, which improved our physiological measures’ dependability, validity, and overall research results.

Funding

Open access funding provided by University of Padjadjaran. Thanks to Padjadjaran University for supporting the research and publication funding.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Contributions

Kusumiyati Kusumiyati, Farhan Ahmad, Mochamad Arief Soleh, Meilinda Rahayu Putri, Nurul Khania Ariani Kusdinar conducted the research, Kusumiyati Kusumiyati and Farhan Ahmad wrote the manuscript, Farhan Ahmad, Ian Sebastian, Ristina Siti Sundari collected the data, Kusumiyati Kusumiyati, Farhan Ahmad, and Mochamad Arief Soleh processed the data.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to
Kusumiyati Kusumiyati.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kusumiyati, K., Ahmad, F., Soleh, M.A. et al. Evaluating the growth and water use efficiency of chili pepper ‘Tanjung’, ‘Unpad’, and ‘Osaka’ using SFM1 sap flow in agro-environment.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39053-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39053-x

Keywords

  • Environmental stress
  • Plant physiology
  • Plant-water relation
  • Resource optimization
  • Water productivity


Source: Ecology - nature.com

Optimising thermal and irradiance conditions for enhanced oxygen production in Tetradesmus bajacalifornicus

ErythroCite: a database on red blood cell size of fishes

Back to Top