Abstract
Despite decades of research, forecasting and controlling freshwater cyanobacterial blooms and microcystin (MC) toxins remains challenging. Whereas eutrophication and climate change can enhance cyanobacterial growth rates, MC concentrations do not always increase with biomass. This unpredictability stems from a dynamic equilibrium between MC production and degradation, a process governed by complex interactions among physiological traits, microbial communities and ecological feedbacks that are still poorly understood. This Review synthesizes emerging insights into how MCs may shape cyanobacterial niche space, from predator–prey dynamics to biogeochemical cycling, to favour bloom persistence. We evaluate current removal strategies, highlighting that although advanced treatment technologies exist, most are impractical at ecosystem scales. Constructed wetlands present a more scalable solution, yet the biotic and abiotic processes that govern their effectiveness require further elucidation. Finally, we identify critical knowledge gaps and outline research priorities that are essential for improving MC prediction and mitigation in a rapidly changing world.
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Acknowledgements
Financial support was provided in part by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery grants (K.F., P.R.L. and M.J.B.) and Alliance grants (M.J.B.), Canada Research Chairs Program (K.F. and M.J.B.), Canadian Water Resources Association (J.L.), NSERC Canada Graduate Scholarship – Master’s (J.L.), the University of Regina (K.F. and P.R.L.), and the University of Lethbridge (M.J.B.). This research took place on Treaty 4 and 6 territories, traditional areas of the Cree, Saulteaux, Lakota, Dakota and Nakota peoples, and the homeland of the Métis.
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J.L., M.J.B., P.R.L., R.J.V. and K.F. contributed to the conception and scope of the Review. K.F., M.J.B. and P.R.L. contributed resources and funding support. J.L. synthesized the literature and drafted the manuscript. All authors contributed to revision of the manuscript and approved the final version.
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Lerminiaux, J., Bogard, M.J., Leavitt, P.R. et al. Multiscale regulation of microcystin production, persistence and degradation in inland waters.
Nat Water (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-026-00614-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-026-00614-z
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