Abstract
Ecological networks have traditionally been studied as static systems. However, growing evidence reveals that these networks are highly dynamic, responding to natural and human-driven environmental change in ways that alter species interactions and influence the resilience of ecosystems. In this Review, we explore the emerging concept of rewiring, which refers to changes in the underlying structure of ecological networks as a result of species responses to variation in environmental conditions. Across natural environmental gradients and in response to anthropogenic change, consistent mechanisms drive rewiring and are increasingly recognized as being central to how ecosystems function under global change. Rewiring is a fundamental property of ecological networks and must be explicitly considered in descriptions of how biodiversity and ecosystem functioning can be maintained in a variable world.
Key points
Ecological networks are dynamic and routinely reorganize in response to environmental variation. This process, termed rewiring, is increasingly recognized as central to ecosystem functioning and resilience in a changing world.
Rewiring can be delineated into two categories that reflect changes in distinct aspects of network structure, namely, their topology and the strength of species interactions.
Shifts in species behaviour, physiology, morphology and species composition are the mechanisms that mediate rewiring. Such trait changes within networks link environmental drivers to modifications in network topology and the strength of species interactions.
Natural variability, including seasonality, climatic oscillations and habitat heterogeneity, enables rewiring that can support resilience, whereas anthropogenic change might drive directional, persistent rewiring that erodes heterogeneity and adaptive capacity.
Detecting, forecasting and managing rewiring will require the integration of trait-based approaches with high-resolution monitoring and embedding network thinking into ecosystem-based management to preserve the ecosystem functions and services upon which humans and biodiversity depend.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access through your institution
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles
$119.00 per year
only $9.92 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on SpringerLink
- Instant access to the full article PDF.
USD 39.95
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
Research on the resilience of ecological networks from the perspective of ecological security pattern: a case study of Wuhan metropolitan area
Embedding information flows within ecological networks
Stabilizing effects of biodiversity arise from species-specific dynamics rather than interspecific interactions in grasslands
References
Niquil, N., Haraldsson, M., Sime-Ngando, T., Huneman, P. & Borrett, S. R. Shifting levels of ecological network’s analysis reveals different system properties. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 375, 20190326 (2020).
Google Scholar
Pascual, M. & Dunne, J. A. Ecological Networks: Linking Structure to Dynamics in Food Webs (Oxford Univ. Press, 2005).
Fuzessy, L. F. & Pizo, M. A. Navigating a changing world: on the significance of rewiring for mutualistic interactions, caveats and future directions. Oikos https://doi.org/10.1002/oik.11230 (2025).
Google Scholar
CaraDonna, P. J. et al. Seeing through the static: the temporal dimension of plant–animal mutualistic interactions. Ecol. Lett. 24, 149–161 (2021).
Google Scholar
Toju, H., Suzuki, S. S. & Baba, Y. G. Interaction network rewiring and species’ contributions to community-scale flexibility. PNAS Nexus 3, pgae047 (2024).
Google Scholar
Neyret, M. et al. A slow-fast trait continuum at the whole community level in relation to land-use intensification. Nat. Commun. 15, 1251 (2024).
Google Scholar
Dubiner, S. & Meiri, S. Widespread recent changes in morphology of old world birds, global warming the immediate suspect. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 31, 791–801 (2022).
Google Scholar
Piatt, J. F. et al. Extreme mortality and reproductive failure of common murres resulting from the northeast Pacific marine heatwave of 2014–2016. PLoS ONE 15, e0226087 (2020).
Google Scholar
Senties-Aguilar, E. M. et al. Elevational and seasonal patterns of plant–hummingbird interactions in a high tropical mountain. Ecol. Evol. 14, e70469 (2024).
Google Scholar
Sandacz, D., Vitt, P., Knight, T. M. M., CaraDonna, P. & Havens, K. The effects of the decline of a keystone plant species on a dune community plant–pollinator network. Front. Conserv. Sci. 1183976 (2023).
Marjakangas, E.-L., Dalsgaard, B. & Ordonez, A. Fundamental interaction niches: towards a functional understanding of ecological networks’ resilience. Ecol. Lett. 28, e70146 (2025).
Google Scholar
Ward, C. A. et al. Global change asymmetrically rewires ecosystems. Ecol. Lett. 28, e70174 (2025).
Google Scholar
Carvajal-Quintero, J. D. et al. Degradation of fish food webs in the Anthropocene. Sci. Adv. 12, eadu6540 (2026).
Google Scholar
Poisot, T. Dissimilarity of species interaction networks: quantifying the effect of turnover and rewiring. Peer Commun. J. 2, e35 (2022).
Google Scholar
Fründ, J. Dissimilarity of species interaction networks: how to partition rewiring and species turnover components. Ecosphere 12, e03653 (2021).
Google Scholar
Dansereau, G. et al. Overcoming the disconnect between species interaction networks and biodiversity conservation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 40, 840–851 (2025).
Google Scholar
Bartley, T. J. et al. Food web rewiring in a changing world. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 345–354 (2019).
Google Scholar
Manning, I., Zoller, L. & Resasco, J. Impacts of sampling effort on seasonal plant–pollinator interaction turnover over eight years. Oecologia 207, 131 (2025).
Google Scholar
Brimacombe, C., Bodner, K. & Fortin, M.-J. Inferred seasonal interaction rewiring of a freshwater stream fish network. Ecography 44, 219–230 (2021).
Google Scholar
Tylianakis, J. M. & Morris, R. J. Ecological networks across environmental gradients. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 48, 25–48 (2017).
Google Scholar
CaraDonna, P. J. et al. Interaction rewiring and the rapid turnover of plant–pollinator networks. Ecol. Lett. 20, 385–394 (2017).
Google Scholar
Poisot, T., Canard, E., Mouillot, D., Mouquet, N. & Gravel, D. The dissimilarity of species interaction networks. Ecol. Lett. 15, 1353–1361 (2012).
Google Scholar
Belchior, M., Neves, F. S., Dattilo, W. & Camarota, F. Species turnover increases ant–trophobiont interaction dissimilarities along a geographical gradient. Insect Conserv. Divers. 16, 88–96 (2023).
Google Scholar
da Silva Goldas, C. et al. Structural resilience and high interaction dissimilarity of plant–pollinator interaction networks in fire-prone grasslands. Oecologia 198, 179–192 (2022).
Google Scholar
Krasnov, B. et al. Multi-site interaction turnover in flea–mammal networks from four continents: application of zeta diversity concept and multi-site generalised dissimilarity modelling. Ecol. Entomol. 48, 466–484 (2023).
Google Scholar
Paine, R. T. Food webs: linkage, interaction strength and community infrastructure. J. Animal Ecol. 49, 667–685 (1980).
Google Scholar
Yodzis, P. & Innes, S. Body size and consumer-resource dynamics. Am. Nat. 139, 1151–1175 (1992).
Google Scholar
Rip, J. M. K. & McCann, K. S. Cross-ecosystem differences in stability and the principle of energy flux. Ecol. Lett. 14, 733–740 (2011).
Google Scholar
Gilbert, B. et al. A bioenergetic framework for the temperature dependence of trophic interactions. Ecol. Lett. 17, 902–914 (2014).
Google Scholar
Hale, K. R. S., Valdovinos, F. S. & Martinez, N. D. Mutualism increases diversity, stability, and function of multiplex networks that integrate pollinators into food webs. Nat. Commun. 11, 2182 (2020).
Google Scholar
Valdovinos, F. S. et al. A bioenergetic framework for aboveground terrestrial food webs. Trends Ecol. Evol. 38, 301–312 (2023).
Google Scholar
Fornoff, F. et al. Functional flower traits and their diversity drive pollinator visitation. Oikos 126, 1020–1030 (2017).
Google Scholar
Fowler, R. E., Rotheray, E. L. & Goulson, D. Floral abundance and resource quality influence pollinator choice. Insect Conserv. Divers. 9, 481–494 (2016).
Google Scholar
Maurer, C. et al. Landscape simplification leads to loss of plant–pollinator interaction diversity and flower visitation frequency despite buffering by abundant generalist pollinators. Divers. Distrib. 30, e13853 (2024).
Google Scholar
Barnes, A. D. et al. Energy flux: the link between multitrophic biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Trends Ecol. Evol. 33, 186–197 (2018).
Google Scholar
Chacoff, N. P., Resasco, J. & Vázquez, D. P. Interaction frequency, network position, and the temporal persistence of interactions in a plant–pollinator network. Ecology 99, 21–28 (2018).
Google Scholar
Vázquez, D. P., Morris, W. F. & Jordano, P. Interaction frequency as a surrogate for the total effect of animal mutualists on plants. Ecol. Lett. 8, 1088–1094 (2005).
Google Scholar
Tunney, T. D., McCann, K. S., Lester, N. P. & Shuter, B. J. Effects of differential habitat warming on complex communities. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 8077–8082 (2014).
Google Scholar
Barbour, M. A. & Gibert, J. P. Genetic and plastic rewiring of food webs under climate change. J. Anim. Ecol. 90, 1814–1830 (2021).
Google Scholar
Hollins, J. et al. A physiological perspective on fisheries-induced evolution. Evol. Appl. 11, 561–576 (2018).
Google Scholar
Knight, T. M., McCoy, M. W., Chase, J. M., McCoy, K. A. & Holt, R. D. Trophic cascades across ecosystems. Nature 437, 880–883 (2005).
Google Scholar
Wood, C. L. et al. Parasites alter community structure. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 9335–9339 (2007).
Google Scholar
Blanchard, J. L. A rewired food web. Nature 527, 173–174 (2015).
Google Scholar
Daru, B. H. et al. Widespread homogenization of plant communities in the Anthropocene. Nat. Commun. 12, 6983 (2021).
Google Scholar
Hautier, Y. et al. Local loss and spatial homogenization of plant diversity reduce ecosystem multifunctionality. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 50–56 (2018).
Google Scholar
Schoener, T. W. in Foraging Behavior (eds Kamil, A. C. et al.) 5–67 (Springer, 1987).
Dillon, M. E., Wang, G. & Huey, R. B. Global metabolic impacts of recent climate warming. Nature 467, 704–706 (2010).
Google Scholar
Weeks, B. C. et al. Shared morphological consequences of global warming in North American migratory birds. Ecol. Lett. 23, 316–325 (2020).
Google Scholar
Buckley, L. B. & Jetz, W. Linking global turnover of species and environments. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 17836–17841 (2008).
Google Scholar
Ioannou, C. C., Ruxton, G. D. & Krause, J. Search rate, attack probability, and the relationship between prey density and prey encounter rate. Behav. Ecol. 19, 842–846 (2008).
Google Scholar
Martins, I. S. et al. Widespread shifts in body size within populations and assemblages. Science 381, 1067–1071 (2023).
Google Scholar
Yurkowski, D. J., Hussey, N. E., Ferguson, S. H. & Fisk, A. T. A temporal shift in trophic diversity among a predator assemblage in a warming Arctic. R. Soc. Open Sci. 5, 180259 (2018).
Google Scholar
Kortsch, S., Primicerio, R., Fossheim, M., Dolgov, A. V. & Aschan, M. Climate change alters the structure of Arctic marine food webs due to poleward shifts of boreal generalists. Proc. R. Soc. B 282, 20151546 (2015).
Google Scholar
Twining, J. P., Augustine, B. C., Royle, J. A. & Fuller, A. K. Abundance-mediated species interactions. Ecology 106, e4468 (2025).
Google Scholar
Pyke, G. H. & Starr, C. K. in Encyclopedia of Social Insects (ed. Starr, C. K.) 1–9 (Springer, 2020).
Gutgesell, M. K. et al. On the dynamic nature of omnivory in a changing world. BioScience 72, 416–430 (2022).
Google Scholar
Gallagher, A. J., Creel, S., Wilson, R. P. & Cooke, S. J. Energy landscapes and the landscape of fear. Trends Ecol. Evol. 32, 88–96 (2017).
Google Scholar
Poelman, E. H. et al. Parasitoid-specific induction of plant responses to parasitized herbivores affects colonization by subsequent herbivores. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 19647–19652 (2011).
Google Scholar
Novella-Fernandez, R., Rodrigo, A., Arnan, X. & Bosch, J. Interaction strength in plant–pollinator networks: are we using the right measure? PLoS ONE 14, e0225930 (2019).
Google Scholar
Nilsson, K. A. & McCann, K. S. Interaction strength revisited — clarifying the role of energy flux for food web stability. Theor. Ecol. 9, 59–71 (2016).
Google Scholar
Wootton, J. T. & Emmerson, M. Measurement of interaction strength in nature. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 36, 419–444 (2005).
Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. H. & Pianka, E. R. On optimal use of a patchy environment. Am. Nat. https://doi.org/10.1086/282454 (1966).
Google Scholar
Guzzo, M. M., Blanchfield, P. J. & Rennie, M. D. Behavioral responses to annual temperature variation alter the dominant energy pathway, growth, and condition of a cold-water predator. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 9912–9917 (2017).
Google Scholar
Pörtner, H. O. & Farrell, A. P. Physiology and climate change. Science 322, 690–692 (2008).
Google Scholar
Sentis, A., Bazin, S., Boukal, D. S. & Stoks, R. Ecological consequences of body size reduction under warming. Proc. R. Soc. B 291, 20241250 (2024).
Google Scholar
Dell, A. I., Pawar, S. & Savage, V. M. Systematic variation in the temperature dependence of physiological and ecological traits. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 10591–10596 (2011).
Google Scholar
Bideault, A., Loreau, M. & Gravel, D. Temperature modifies consumer–resource interaction strength through its effects on biological rates and body mass. Front. Ecol. Evol. 7, 45 (2019).
Google Scholar
Bideault, A. et al. Thermal mismatches in biological rates determine trophic control and biomass distribution under warming. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 257–269 (2021).
Google Scholar
Magnoli, S. M., Keller, K. R. & Lau, J. A. Mutualisms in a warming world: how increased temperatures affect the outcomes of multi-mutualist interactions. Ecology 104, e3955 (2023).
Google Scholar
McMeans, B. C., McCann, K. S., Humphries, M., Rooney, N. & Fisk, A. T. Food web structure in temporally-forced ecosystems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 30, 662–672 (2015).
Google Scholar
Pitteloud, C. et al. The structure of plant–herbivore interaction networks varies along elevational gradients in the European Alps. J. Biogeogr. 48, 465–476 (2021).
Google Scholar
Rabeling, S. C. et al. Seasonal variation of a plant–pollinator network in the Brazilian cerrado: implications for community structure and robustness. PLoS ONE 14, e0224997 (2019).
Google Scholar
McMeans, B. C. et al. Consumer trophic positions respond variably to seasonally fluctuating environments. Ecology 100, e02570 (2019).
Google Scholar
Oliveira, H. F. M. et al. The structure of tropical bat–plant interaction networks during an extreme El Niño–Southern Oscillation event. Mol. Ecol. 31, 1892–1906 (2022).
Google Scholar
Edwards, M. R., Cárdenas-Alayza, S., Adkesson, M. J., Daniels-Abdulahad, M. & Hirons, A. C. Peruvian fur seals as archivists of El Niño Southern Oscillation effects. Front. Mar. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.651212 (2021).
Google Scholar
Chiu-Werner, A. et al. Inter-annual isotopic niche segregation of wild humboldt penguins through years of different El Niño intensities. Mar. Environ. Res. 150, 104755 (2019).
Google Scholar
Dolson, R., McCann, K., Rooney, N. & Ridgway, M. Lake morphometry predicts the degree of habitat coupling by a mobile predator. Oikos 118, 1230–1238 (2009).
Google Scholar
Tunney, T. D., McCann, K. S., Lester, N. P. & Shuter, B. J. Food web expansion and contraction in response to changing environmental conditions. Nat. Commun. 3, 1105 (2012).
Google Scholar
Albrecht, J. et al. Plant and animal functional diversity drive mutualistic network assembly across an elevational gradient. Nat. Commun. 9, 3177 (2018).
Google Scholar
Classen, A. et al. Specialization of plant–pollinator interactions increases with temperature at Mt. Kilimanjaro. Ecol. Evol. 10, 2182–2195 (2020).
Google Scholar
Burkle, L. A., Marlin, J. C. & Knight, T. M. Plant–pollinator interactions over 120 years: loss of species, co-occurrence, and function. Science 339, 1611–1615 (2013).
Google Scholar
Trumpickas, J., Shuter, B. J., Minns, C. K. & Cyr, H. Characterizing patterns of nearshore water temperature variation in the North American Great Lakes and assessing sensitivities to climate change. J. Great Lakes Res. 41, 53–64 (2015).
Google Scholar
McCann, K. S., Rasmussen, J. B. & Umbanhowar, J. The dynamics of spatially coupled food webs. Ecol. Lett. 8, 513–523 (2005).
Google Scholar
McMeans, B. C. et al. The adaptive capacity of lake food webs: from individuals to ecosystems. Ecol. Monogr. 86, 4–19 (2016).
Google Scholar
Fussmann, K. E., Schwarzmüller, F., Brose, U., Jousset, A. & Rall, B. C. Ecological stability in response to warming. Nat. Clim. Change 4, 206–210 (2014).
Google Scholar
Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Dalsgaard, J., Froese, R. & Torres, F. Fishing down marine food webs. Science 279, 860–863 (1998).
Google Scholar
Fera, S. A., Rennie, M. D. & Dunlop, E. S. Broad shifts in the resource use of a commercially harvested fish following the invasion of dreissenid mussels. Ecology 98, 1681–1692 (2017).
Google Scholar
Rennie, M. D., Sprules, W. G. & Johnson, T. B. Factors affecting the growth and condition of lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 66, 2096–2108 (2009).
Google Scholar
Griffiths, C. J., Hansen, D. M., Jones, C. G., Zuël, N. & Harris, S. Resurrecting extinct interactions with extant substitutes. Curr. Biol. 21, 762–765 (2011).
Google Scholar
Heinen, J. H. et al. Novel plant–frugivore network on Mauritius is unlikely to compensate for the extinction of seed dispersers. Nat. Commun. 14, 1019 (2023).
Google Scholar
Potapov, A. M., Klarner, B., Sandmann, D., Widyastuti, R. & Scheu, S. Linking size spectrum, energy flux and trophic multifunctionality in soil food webs of tropical land-use systems. J. Anim. Ecol. 88, 1845–1859 (2019).
Google Scholar
Pelletier, M. C. et al. Resilience of aquatic systems: review and management implications. Aquat. Sci. 82, 44 (2020).
Google Scholar
Engle, N. L. Adaptive capacity and its assessment. Glob. Environ. Change 21, 647–656 (2011).
Google Scholar
Levin, S. A. & Lubchenco, J. Resilience, robustness, and marine ecosystem-based management. BioScience 58, 27–32 (2008).
Google Scholar
Embke, H. S. et al. Adaptive capacity of freshwater organisms in North America: current understanding and future applications. Glob. Change Biol. Commun. 1, e70009 (2026).
Google Scholar
Domınguez-Garcia, V., Molina, F. P., Allen-Perkins, A., Godoy, O. & Bartomeus, I. Plant–pollinator interaction rewiring boosts year to year community persistence. Ecol. Lett. 29, e70293 (2025).
Google Scholar
Schindler, D. E., Armstrong, J. B. & Reed, T. E. The portfolio concept in ecology and evolution. Front. Ecol. Environ. 13, 257–263 (2015).
Google Scholar
Carnicer, J., Abrams, P. A. & Jordano, P. Switching behavior, coexistence and diversification: comparing empirical community‐wide evidence with theoretical predictions. Ecol. Lett. 11, 802–808 (2008).
Google Scholar
Bascompte, J., Jordano, P., Melián, C. J. & Olesen, J. M. The nested assembly of plant–animal mutualistic networks. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 9383–9387 (2003).
Google Scholar
Valdovinos, F. S. et al. Niche partitioning due to adaptive foraging reverses effects of nestedness and connectance on pollination network stability. Ecol. Lett. 19, 1277–1286 (2016).
Google Scholar
Gilljam, D., Curtsdotter, A. & Ebenman, B. Adaptive rewiring aggravates the effects of species loss in ecosystems. Nat. Commun. 6, 8412 (2015).
Google Scholar
Lázaro, A., Gómez-Martínez, C., González-Estévez, M. A. & Hidalgo, M. Portfolio effect and asynchrony as drivers of stability in plant–pollinator communities along a gradient of landscape heterogeneity. Ecography 2022, e06112 (2022).
Google Scholar
Bailey, A., Meyer, L., Pettingell, N., Macie, M. & Korstad, J. in Ecological and Practical Applications for Sustainable Agriculture (eds Bauddh, K. et al.) 373–393 (Springer, 2020).
Smith, V. H. & Schindler, D. W. Eutrophication science: where do we go from here? Trends Ecol. Evol. 24, 201–207 (2009).
Google Scholar
Stone, J. P. et al. Hypoxia’s impact on pelagic fish populations in Lake Erie: a tale of two planktivores. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 77, 1131–1148 (2020).
Google Scholar
Gómez-Martínez, C., Cursach, J., González-Estévez, M. A. & Lázaro, A. Landscape homogenization strengthens the fitness benefits of plant species’ centrality in pollination networks. Ecol. Appl. 35, e70069 (2025).
Google Scholar
Manlick, P. J. & Newsome, S. D. Adaptive foraging in the Anthropocene: can individual diet specialization compensate for biotic homogenization? Front. Ecol. Environ. 19, 510–518 (2021).
Google Scholar
Fang, Q. & Huang, S.-Q. Relative stability of core groups in pollination networks in a biodiversity hotspot over four years. PLoS ONE 7, e32663 (2012).
Google Scholar
Zografou, K. et al. Stable generalist species anchor a dynamic pollination network. Ecosphere 11, e03225 (2020).
Google Scholar
Onyeagoziri, C. A., Minoarivelo, H. O. & Hui, C. Mutualism and dispersal heterogeneity shape stability, biodiversity, and structure of theoretical plant–pollinator meta-networks. Plants 14, 2127 (2025).
Google Scholar
Quévreux, P. et al. Perspectives in modelling ecological interaction networks for sustainable ecosystem management. J. Appl. Ecol. 61, 410–416 (2024).
Google Scholar
Dee, L. E. et al. Operationalizing network theory for ecosystem service assessments. Trends Ecol. Evol. 32, 118–130 (2017).
Google Scholar
Navarrete, S. A., Ávila-Thieme, M. I., Valencia, D., Génin, A. & Gelcich, S. Monitoring the fabric of nature: using allometric trophic network models and observations to assess policy effects on biodiversity. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 378, 20220189 (2023).
Google Scholar
Howell, D. et al. Combining ecosystem and single-species modeling to provide ecosystem-based fisheries management advice within current management systems. Front. Mar. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.607831 (2021).
Google Scholar
Green, S. J., Brookson, C. B., Hardy, N. A. & Crowder, L. B. Trait-based approaches to global change ecology: moving from description to prediction. Proc. R. Soc. B 289, 20220071 (2022).
Google Scholar
Pires, M. M. Rewilding ecological communities and rewiring ecological networks. Persp. Ecol. Conserv. 15, 257–265 (2017).
Brose, U. et al. Predator traits determine food-web architecture across ecosystems. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 919–927 (2019).
Google Scholar
Van Kleunen, L. B. et al. Decision-making under uncertainty for species introductions into ecological networks. Ecol. Lett. 26, 983–1004 (2023).
Google Scholar
Tunney, T. D., Carpenter, S. R. & Vander Zanden, M. J. The consistency of a species’ response to press perturbations with high food web uncertainty. Ecology 98, 1859–1868 (2017).
Google Scholar
van Oevelen, D. et al. Quantifying food web flows using linear inverse models. Ecosystems 13, 32–45 (2010).
Google Scholar
Zhang, X., Yi, Y. & Yang, Z. The long-term changes in food web structure and ecosystem functioning of a shallow lake: implications for the lake management. J. Environ. Manag. 301, 113804 (2022).
Google Scholar
Crossin, G. T. et al. Acoustic telemetry and fisheries management. Ecol. Appl. 27, 1031–1049 (2017).
Google Scholar
Gonçalves, A. M. M., Rocha, C. P., Marques, J. C. & Gonçalves, F. J. M. Fatty acids as suitable biomarkers to assess pesticide impacts in freshwater biological scales — a review. Ecol. Indic. 122, 107299 (2021).
Google Scholar
Hobson, K. A. Stable isotopes and a changing world. Oecologia 203, 233–250 (2023).
Google Scholar
Levin, S. A. Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems. Ecosystems 1, 431–436 (1998).
Google Scholar
Jackson, M. C., Pawar, S. & Woodward, G. The temporal dynamics of multiple stressor effects: from individuals to ecosystems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 36, 402–410 (2021).
Google Scholar
Schleuning, M., García, D. & Tobias, J. A. Animal functional traits: towards a trait-based ecology for whole ecosystems. Funct. Ecol. 37, 4–12 (2023).
Google Scholar
Moore, J. W. & Schindler, D. E. Getting ahead of climate change for ecological adaptation and resilience. Science 376, 1421–1426 (2022).
Google Scholar
Barbosa, P. & Castellanos, I. Ecology of Predator–Prey Interactions (Oxford Univ. Press, 2005).
Müller-Graf, C. D. M. et al. Population dynamics of host–parasite interactions in a cockroach–oxyuroid system. Oikos 95, 431–440 (2001).
Google Scholar
Holland, J. N., Ness, J. H., Boyle, A. & Bronstein, J. L. in Ecology of Predator–Prey Interactions (eds Barbosa, P. & Castellanos, I.) 17–33 (Oxford Academic, 2005).
Chamberlain, S. A. & Holland, J. N. Quantitative synthesis of context dependency in ant–plant protection mutualisms. Ecology 90, 2384–2392 (2009).
Google Scholar
Bronstein, J. (ed.) Mutualism (Oxford Univ. Press, 2015).
Harvey, E., Gounand, I., Ward, C. L. & Altermatt, F. Bridging ecology and conservation: from ecological networks to ecosystem function. J. Appl. Ecol. 54, 371–379 (2017).
Google Scholar
Calford, M. B. et al. Rewiring the adult brain. Nature 438, E3 (2005).
Google Scholar
Wang, H. et al. Functional brain rewiring and altered cortical stability in ulcerative colitis. Mol. Psychiatry 27, 1792–1804 (2022).
Google Scholar
Inoue, T. & Ueno, M. The diversity and plasticity of descending motor pathways rewired after stroke and trauma in rodents. Front. Neural Circuits 19, 1566562 (2025).
Google Scholar
Goity, A. & Larrondo, L. F. Redesigning and rethinking genetic circuits: the potential of transcriptional rewiring in filamentous fungi. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 93, 103301 (2025).
Google Scholar
Acierno, C. et al. Metabolic rewiring of bacterial pathogens in response to antibiotic pressure — a molecular perspective. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 26, 5574 (2025).
Google Scholar
Chrysopoulou, M. & Rinschen, M. M. Metabolic rewiring and communication: an integrative view of kidney proximal tubule function. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 86, 405–427 (2024).
Google Scholar
Rafiqi, A. M., Rajakumar, A. & Abouheif, E. Origin and elaboration of a major evolutionary transition in individuality. Nature 585, 239–244 (2020).
Google Scholar
Otto, S. B., Rall, B. C. & Brose, U. Allometric degree distributions facilitate food-web stability. Nature 450, 1226–1229 (2007).
Google Scholar
Thierry, A. et al. Adaptive foraging and the rewiring of size-structured food webs following extinctions. Basic Appl. Ecol. 12, 562–570 (2011).
Google Scholar
Costa, A. P. L., Guimarães, P. R. & Padial, A. A. Antagonistic rewiring and turnover patterns in a neotropical fish–parasite metanetwork. Freshw. Biol. 70, e70068 (2025).
Google Scholar
Elton, C. S. Animal Ecology (Macmillan, 1927).
Watts, D. J. & Strogatz, S. H. Collective dynamics of ‘small-world’ networks. Nature 393, 440–442 (1998).
Google Scholar
Strogatz, S. H. Exploring complex networks. Nature 410, 268–276 (2001).
Google Scholar
Staniczenko, P. P. A., Lewis, O. T., Jones, N. S. & Reed-Tsochas, F. Structural dynamics and robustness of food webs. Ecol. Lett. 13, 891–899 (2010).
Google Scholar
McCann, K. S. & Rooney, N. The more food webs change, the more they stay the same. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 1789–1801 (2009).
Google Scholar
Ramos-Jiliberto, R., Valdovinos, F. S., Moisset de Espanes, P. & Flores, J. D. Topological plasticity increases robustness of mutualistic networks. J. Anim. Ecol. 81, 896–904 (2012).
Google Scholar
Bauer, S. & Hoye, B. J. Migratory animals couple biodiversity and ecosystem functioning worldwide. Science 344, 1242552 (2014).
Google Scholar
Price, E. L., Sertić Perić, M., Romero, G. Q. & Kratina, P. Land use alters trophic redundancy and resource flow through stream food webs. J. Anim. Ecol. 88, 677–689 (2019).
Google Scholar
Lu, X. et al. Drought rewires the cores of food webs. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 875–878 (2016).
Google Scholar
Polazzo, F., Marina, T. I., Crettaz-Minaglia, M. & Rico, A. Food web rewiring drives long-term compositional differences and late-disturbance interactions at the community level. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2117364119 (2022).
Google Scholar
Su, M., Ma, Q. & Hui, C. Adaptive rewiring shapes structure and stability in a three-guild herbivore–plant–pollinator network. Commun. Biol. 7, 103 (2024).
Google Scholar
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the support of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, as well as the Centre for Ecosystem Management at the University of Guelph. C.A.W. was supported by an NSERC Canada Graduate Research Scholarship. K.R.S.H. was supported by an NSF Postdoctoral Research Fellowship in Biology (grant no. 2410512).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
C.A.W. led this Review under the supervision of T.D.T. and K.S.M. All authors contributed to conceptualization, writing and editing. Visualizations were created by C.A.W.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Reviews Biodiversity thanks Xingfeng Si, who co-reviewed with Chen Zhu; Nuria Galiana; and Ignasi Bartomeus for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Reprints and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ward, C.A., Tunney, T.D., Hale, K.R.S. et al. The rewiring of ecological networks in a variable world.
Nat. Rev. Biodivers. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44358-026-00159-9
Accepted:
Published:
Version of record:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44358-026-00159-9
Source: Ecology - nature.com
