Watson, J. E. M., Dudley, N., Segan, D. B. & Hockings, M. The performance and potential of protected areas. Nature 515, 67–73 (2014).
Dudley, N. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories (IUCN, 2008).
Dudley, N. et al. The essential role of other effective area-based conservation measures in achieving big bold conservation targets. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 15, e00424 (2018).
Donald, P. F. et al. The prevalence, characteristics and effectiveness of Aichi Target 11′ s “other effective area-based conservation measures”(OECMs) in Key Biodiversity Areas. Conserv. Lett. 12, 12659 (2019).
UN General Assembly. Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 21 October 2015. A/RES/70/1 https://www.refworld.org/docid/57b6e3e44.html (accessed 11 November 2019).
Convention on Biological Diversity. COP 10 Decision X/2: Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020. http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=12268 (2011).
UNEP-WCMC & IUCN. World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). https://www.protectedplanet.net/ (UNEP-WCMC, 2019).
UNEP-WCMC & IUCN. World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (WD-OCEM). https://www.protectedplanet.net/c/other-effective-area-based-conservation-measures (UNEP-WCMC, 2019).
Lewis, E. et al. Dynamics in the global protected-area estate since 2004. Conserv. Biol. 33, 570–579 (2019).
Klein, C. J. et al. Shortfalls in the global protected area network at representing marine biodiversity. Sci. Rep. 5, 17539 (2015).
Venter, O. et al. Bias in protected-area location and its effects on long-term aspirations of biodiversity conventions. Conserv. Biol. 32, 127–134 (2018).
Mouillot, D. et al. Global marine protected areas do not secure the evolutionary history of tropical corals and fishes. Nat. Commun. 7, 10359 (2016).
Butchart, S. H. M. et al. Shortfalls and solutions for meeting national and global conservation area targets. Conserv. Lett. 8, 329–337 (2015).
Christie, P. et al. Why people matter in ocean governance: incorporating human dimensions into large-scale marine protected areas. Mar. Policy 84, 273–284 (2017).
Zafra-Calvo, N. et al. Progress toward equitably managed protected areas in Aichi target 11: a global survey. Bioscience 69, 191–197 (2019). This is the first large review of how well protected areas satisfy social equity metrics.
Juffe-Bignoli, D. et al. Achieving Aichi biodiversity target 11 to improve the performance of protected areas and conserve freshwater biodiversity. Aquat. Conserv. 26, 133–151 (2016).
Maron, M., Simmonds, J. S. & Watson, J. E. M. Bold nature retention targets are essential for the global environment agenda. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 1194–1195 (2018).
Geldmann, J. et al. Changes in protected area management effectiveness over time: a global analysis. Biol. Conserv. 191, 692–699 (2015).
Di Minin, E. & Toivonen, T. Global protected area expansion: creating more than paper parks. Bioscience 65, 637–638 (2015).
Gill, D. A. et al. Capacity shortfalls hinder the performance of marine protected areas globally. Nature 543, 665–669 (2017). This study compiles four years of data to assess capacity shortfalls and biodiversity outcomes from the management of 589 marine protected areas.
Coad, L. et al. Widespread shortfalls in protected area resourcing undermine efforts to conserve biodiversity. Front. Ecol. Environ. 17, 259–264 (2019).
Visconti, P. et al. Protected area targets post-2020. Science 364, 239–241 (2019).
Barnes, M. D., Glew, L., Wyborn, C. & Craigie, I. D. Prevent perverse outcomes from global protected area policy. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 759–762 (2018).
IPBES. Summary for Policymakers of the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES secretariat, 2019). This report assesses the status of biodiversity and ecosystem services, their impact on human well-being and the effectiveness of conservation interventions.
Dinerstein, E. et al. A global deal for nature: guiding principles, milestones, and targets. Sci. Adv. 5, eaaw2869 (2019).
Noss, R. F. et al. Bolder thinking for conservation. Conserv. Biol. 26, 1–4 (2012).
Wilson, E. O. Half-Earth: Our Planet’s Fight for Life (Liveright, 2016).
O’Leary, B. C. et al. Effective coverage targets for ocean protection. Conserv. Lett. 9, 398–404 (2016).
Bull, J. W. et al. Net positive outcomes for nature. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4, 4–7 (2020).
Mace, G. M. et al. Aiming higher to bend the curve of biodiversity loss. Nat. Sustain. 1, 448–451 (2018).
Dinerstein, E. et al. An ecoregion-based approach to protecting half the terrestrial realm. Bioscience 67, 534–545 (2017).
Spalding, M. D. et al. Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas. Bioscience 57, 573–583 (2007).
UNEP-WCMC, IUCN & NGS. Protected Planet Report 2018 (UNEP-WCMC, IUCN and NGS, 2018). A biennial publication that reviews progress toward protected areas targets and goals.
Rodrigues, A. S. L. et al. Global gap analysis: priority regions for expanding the global protected-area network. Bioscience 54, 1092–1100 (2004).
IUCN. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-2 http://www.iucnredlist.org (accessed 10 September 2019) (2019).
IUCN. A Global Standard for the Identification of Key Biodiversity Areas. Version 1.0 (IUCN, 2016).
BirdLife International. World Database of Key Biodiversity Areas. www.keybiodiversityareas.org (accessed 20 June 2019) (2019).
Jones, K. R. et al. The location and protection status of Earth’s diminishing marine wilderness. Curr. Biol. 28, 2506–2512 (2018).
Allan, J. R., Venter, O. & Watson, J. E. M. Temporally inter-comparable maps of terrestrial wilderness and the last of the wild. Sci. Data 4, 170187 (2017).
Watson, J. E. M. et al. The exceptional value of intact forest ecosystems. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 599–610 (2018).
Di Marco, M., Ferrier, S., Harwood, T. D., Hoskins, A. J. & Watson, J. E. M. Wilderness areas halve the extinction risk of terrestrial biodiversity. Nature 573, 582–585 (2019).
Martin, T. G. & Watson, J. E. M. Intact ecosystems provide best defence against climate change. Nat. Clim. Chang. 6, 122–124 (2016).
Griscom, B. W. et al. Natural climate solutions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 11645–11650 (2017).
Soto-Navarro, C. et al. Mapping co-benefits for carbon storage and biodiversity to inform conservation policy and action. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 375, 20190128 (2020). This study combines multiple datasets to produce a new high-resolution map of global above- and belowground carbon stored in biomass and soil.
Dargie, G. C. et al. Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex. Nature 542, 86–90 (2017).
DeVries, T. & Weber, T. The export and fate of organic matter in the ocean: new constraints from combining satellite and oceanographic tracer observations. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 31, 535–555 (2017).
Laws, E. A., D’Sa, E. & Naik, P. Simple equations to estimate ratios of new or export production to total production from satellite-derived estimates of sea surface temperature and primary production. Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods 9, 593–601 (2011).
DeVries, T., Primeau, F. & Deutsch, C. The sequestration efficiency of the biological pump. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L13601 (2012).
Henson, S. A., Sanders, R. & Madsen, E. Global patterns in efficiency of particulate organic carbon export and transfer to the deep ocean. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 26, GB1028 (2012).
Roshan, S. & DeVries, T. Efficient dissolved organic carbon production and export in the oligotrophic ocean. Nat. Commun. 8, 2036 (2017).
Lutz, M. J., Caldeira, K., Dunbar, R. B. & Behrenfeld, M. J. Seasonal rhythms of net primary production and particulate organic carbon flux to depth describe the efficiency of biological pump in the global ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 112, C10011 (2007).
Magris, R. A. et al. Biologically representative and well-connected marine reserves enhance biodiversity persistence in conservation planning. Conserv. Lett. 11, e12439 (2018).
Mendenhall, C. D., Karp, D. S., Meyer, C. F. J., Hadly, E. A. & Daily, G. C. Predicting biodiversity change and averting collapse in agricultural landscapes. Nature 509, 213–217 (2014).
Harrison, H. B. et al. Larval export from marine reserves and the recruitment benefit for fish and fisheries. Curr. Biol. 22, 1023–1028 (2012).
Johnson, D. W., Christie, M. R., Pusack, T. J., Stallings, C. D. & Hixon, M. A. Integrating larval connectivity with local demography reveals regional dynamics of a marine metapopulation. Ecology 99, 1419–1429 (2018).
Saura, S., Bastin, L., Battistella, L., Mandrici, A. & Dubois, G. Protected areas in the world’s ecoregions: how well connected are they? Ecol. Indic. 76, 144–158 (2017).
Saura, S. et al. Global trends in protected area connectivity from 2010 to 2018. Biol. Conserv. 238, 108183 (2019).
Endo, C. A. K., Gherardi, D. F. M., Pezzi, L. P. & Lima, L. N. Low connectivity compromises the conservation of reef fishes by marine protected areas in the tropical South Atlantic. Sci. Rep. 9, 8634 (2019).
Bergseth, B. J., Gurney, G. G., Barnes, M. L., Arias, A. & Cinner, J. E. Addressing poaching in marine protected areas through voluntary surveillance and enforcement. Nat. Sustain. 1, 421–426 (2018). This study uses a citizen science approach to estimate poaching rates inside 55 marine protected areas spanning seven countries.
Jones, K. R. et al. One-third of global protected land is under intense human pressure. Science 360, 788–791 (2018).
Costello, M. J. & Ballantine, B. Biodiversity conservation should focus on no-take marine reserves: 94% of marine protected areas allow fishing. Trends Ecol. Evol. 30, 507–509 (2015).
Zupan, M. et al. Marine partially protected areas: drivers of ecological effectiveness. Front. Ecol. Environ. 16, 381–387 (2018).
Spracklen, B. D., Kalamandeen, M., Galbraith, D., Gloor, E. & Spracklen, D. V. A global analysis of deforestation in moist tropical forest protected areas. PLoS ONE 10, e0143886 (2015).
Herrera, D., Pfaff, A. & Robalino, J. Impacts of protected areas vary with the level of government: comparing avoided deforestation across agencies in the Brazilian Amazon. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 14916–14925 (2019).
Negret, P. J. et al. Effects of spatial autocorrelation and sampling design on estimates of protected area effectiveness. Conserv. Biol. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13522 (2020).
White, T. D. et al. Assessing the effectiveness of a large marine protected area for reef shark conservation. Biol. Conserv. 207, 64–71 (2017).
Giakoumi, S. & Pey, A. Assessing the effects of marine protected areas on biological invasions: a global review. Front. Mar. Sci. 4, 49 (2017).
Geldmann, J., Manica, A., Burgess, N. D., Coad, L. & Balmford, A. A global-level assessment of the effectiveness of protected areas at resisting anthropogenic pressures. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 116, 23209–23215 (2019).
Gray, C. L. et al. Local biodiversity is higher inside than outside terrestrial protected areas worldwide. Nat. Commun. 7, 12306 (2016). This controlled study shows how biodiversity outcomes from protected area management are mediated by different classes of land use.
Kerwath, S. E., Winker, H., Götz, A. & Attwood, C. G. Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers. Nat. Commun. 4, 2347 (2013).
Speed, C. W., Cappo, M. & Meekan, M. G. Evidence for rapid recovery of shark populations within a coral reef marine protected area. Biol. Conserv. 220, 308–319 (2018).
Caselle, J. E., Rassweiler, A., Hamilton, S. L. & Warner, R. R. Recovery trajectories of kelp forest animals are rapid yet spatially variable across a network of temperate marine protected areas. Sci. Rep. 5, 14102 (2015).
Emslie, M. J. et al. Expectations and outcomes of reserve network performance following re-zoning of the Great Barrier Reef marine park. Curr. Biol. 25, 983–992 (2015).
Campbell, S. J., Edgar, G. J., Stuart-Smith, R. D., Soler, G. & Bates, A. E. Fishing-gear restrictions and biomass gains for coral reef fishes in marine protected areas. Conserv. Biol. 32, 401–410 (2018).
Mumby, P. J. et al. Trophic cascade facilitates coral recruitment in a marine reserve. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 8362–8367 (2007).
Boaden, A. E. & Kingsford, M. J. Predators drive community structure in coral reef fish assemblages. Ecosphere 6, art46 (2015).
Lamb, J. B., Williamson, D. H., Russ, G. R. & Willis, B. L. Protected areas mitigate diseases of reef-building corals by reducing damage from fishing. Ecology 96, 2555–2567 (2015).
Naidoo, R. et al. Evaluating the impacts of protected areas on human well-being across the developing world. Sci. Adv. 5, eaav3006 (2019).
Zafra-Calvo, N. et al. Towards an indicator system to assess equitable management in protected areas. Biol. Conserv. 211, 134–141 (2017).
Oldekop, J. A., Holmes, G., Harris, W. E. & Evans, K. L. A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conserv. Biol. 30, 133–141 (2016).
Giakoumi, S. et al. Revisiting “success” and “failure” of marine protected areas: a conservation scientist perspective. Front. Mar. Sci. 5, 223 (2018).
Edgar, G. J. et al. Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature 506, 216–220 (2014).
Ban, N. C. et al. Well-being outcomes of marine protected areas. Nat. Sustain. 2, 524–532 (2019).
Corrigan, C. et al. Quantifying the contribution to biodiversity conservation of protected areas governed by indigenous peoples and local communities. Biol. Conserv. 227, 403–412 (2018).
Schleicher, J., Peres, C. A., Amano, T., Llactayo, W. & Leader-Williams, N. Conservation performance of different conservation governance regimes in the Peruvian Amazon. Sci. Rep. 7, 11318 (2017).
Hoffmann, M. et al. The difference conservation makes to extinction risk of the world’s ungulates. Conserv. Biol. 29, 1303–1313 (2015).
Watson, J. E. M. et al. Set a global target for ecosystems. Nature 578, 360–362 (2020).
Stolton, S., Redford, K. H. & Dudley, N. The Futures of Privately Protected Areas (IUCN, 2014).
IUCN WCPA. Guidelines for Recognising and Reporting Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (IUCN, 2019).
Shabtay, A., Portman, M. E., Manea, E. & Gissi, E. Promoting ancillary conservation through marine spatial planning. Sci. Total Environ. 651, 1753–1763 (2019).
Banks-Leite, C. et al. Using ecological thresholds to evaluate the costs and benefits of set-asides in a biodiversity hotspot. Science 345, 1041–1045 (2014).
Schuster, R., Germain, R. R., Bennett, J. R., Reo, N. J. & Arcese, P. Vertebrate biodiversity on indigenous-managed lands in Australia, Brazil, and Canada equals that in protected areas. Environ. Sci. Policy 101, 1–6 (2019).
Bennett, N. J. & Dearden, P. From measuring outcomes to providing inputs: governance, management, and local development for more effective marine protected areas. Mar. Policy 50, 96–110 (2014).
Suchley, A. & Alvarez-Filip, L. Local human activities limit marine protection efficacy on Caribbean coral reefs. Conserv. Lett. 11, e12571 (2018).
Cook, C. N., Valkan, R. S., Mascia, M. B. & McGeoch, M. A. Quantifying the extent of protected-area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement in Australia. Conserv. Biol. 31, 1039–1052 (2017).
Qin, S. et al. Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement as a threat to iconic protected areas. Conserv. Biol. 33, 1275–1285 (2019).
Forrest, J. L. et al. Tropical deforestation and carbon emissions from protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD). Conserv. Lett. 8, 153–161 (2015).
Golden Kroner, R. E. et al. The uncertain future of protected lands and waters. Science 364, 881–886 (2019). This study compiled data that are available globally on PADDD events.
Roberts, K. E., Valkan, R. S. & Cook, C. N. Measuring progress in marine protection: a new set of metrics to evaluate the strength of marine protected area networks. Biol. Conserv. 219, 20–27 (2018).
De Vos, A., Clements, H. S., Biggs, D. & Cumming, G. S. The dynamics of proclaimed privately protected areas in South Africa over 83 years. Conserv. Lett. 12, e12644 (2019).
Costelloe, B. et al. Global biodiversity indicators reflect the modeled impacts of protected area policy change. Conserv. Lett. 9, 14–20 (2016).
Pringle, R. M. Upgrading protected areas to conserve wild biodiversity. Nature 546, 91–99 (2017).
Kuempel, C. D., Adams, V. M., Possingham, H. P. & Bode, M. Bigger or better: the relative benefits of protected area network expansion and enforcement for the conservation of an exploited species. Conserv. Lett. 11, e12433 (2018).
Adams, V. M., Barnes, M. & Pressey, R. L. Shortfalls in conservation evidence: moving from ecological effects of interventions to policy evaluation. One Earth 1, 62–75 (2019).
Coad, L. et al. Measuring impact of protected area management interventions: current and future use of the global database of protected area management effectiveness. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 370, 20140281 (2015).
Hansen, M. C. et al. High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 342, 850–853 (2013).
Venter, O. et al. Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation. Nat. Commun. 7, 12558 (2016).
Geldmann, J., Joppa, L. N. & Burgess, N. D. Mapping change in human pressure globally on land and within protected areas. Conserv. Biol. 28, 1604–1616 (2014).
Wilkie, D. S., Bennett, E. L., Peres, C. A. & Cunningham, A. A. The empty forest revisited. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1223, 120–128 (2011).
Volenec, Z. M. & Dobson, A. P. Conservation value of small reserves. Conserv. Biol. 34, 66–79 (2020).
Nicholson, E. et al. Scenarios and models to support global conservation targets. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 57–68 (2019).
Maron, M., Rhodes, J. R. & Gibbons, P. Calculating the benefit of conservation actions. Conserv. Lett. 6, 359–367 (2013).
Schleicher, J. et al. Statistical matching for conservation science. Conserv. Biol. 34, 538–549 (2019).
Ferraro, P. J. Counterfactual thinking and impact evaluation in environmental policy. New Dir. Eval. 2009, 75–84 (2009).
Chandler, M. et al. Contribution of citizen science towards international biodiversity monitoring. Biol. Conserv. 213, 280–294 (2017).
Convention on Biological Diversity. Long-Term Strategic Directions to the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity, Approaches to Living in Harmony with Nature and Preparation for the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. www.cbd.int/decision/cop?id=12268 (2018).
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Global Biodiversity Outlook 4 (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2014).
McCarthy, D. P. et al. Financial costs of meeting global biodiversity conservation targets: current spending and unmet needs. Science 338, 946–949 (2012).
Balmford, A. et al. Walk on the wild side: estimating the global magnitude of visits to protected areas. PLoS Biol. 13, e1002074 (2015).
Waldron, A. et al. Reductions in global biodiversity loss predicted from conservation spending. Nature 551, 364–367 (2017).
Murray, K. A., Allen, T., Loh, E., Machalaba, C. & Daszak, P. Emerging Viral Zoonoses from Wildlife Associated with Animal-Based Food Systems: Risks and Opportunities (Springer, 2016).
Dobson, A.P. et al. Ecology and economics for pandemic prevention. Science 369, 379–381 (2020).
Burmester, B. Upgrading or unhelpful? Defiant corporate support for a marine protected area. Mar. Policy 63, 206–212 (2016).
Larson, E. R., Howell, S., Kareiva, P. & Armsworth, P. R. Constraints of philanthropy on determining the distribution of biodiversity conservation funding. Conserv. Biol. 30, 206–215 (2016).
Smith, T. et al. Biodiversity means business: reframing global biodiversity goals for the private sector. Conserv. Lett. 13, e12690 (2019).
Elsen, P. R., Monahan, W. B., Dougherty, E. R. & Merenlender, A. M. Keeping pace with climate change in global terrestrial protected areas. Sci. Adv. 6, eaay0814 (2020).
Poloczanska, E. S. et al. Global imprint of climate change on marine life. Nat. Clim. Chang. 3, 919–925 (2013).
Bruno, J. F. et al. Climate change threatens the world’s marine protected areas. Nat. Clim. Chang. 8, 499–503 (2018).
Schleuning, M. et al. Ecological networks are more sensitive to plant than to animal extinction under climate change. Nat. Commun. 7, 13965 (2016).
Bonnot, T. W., Cox, W. A., Thompson, F. R. & Millspaugh, J. J. Threat of climate change on a songbird population through its impacts on breeding. Nat. Clim. Chang. 8, 718–722 (2018).
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Poloczanska, E. S., Skirving, W. & Dove, S. Coral reef ecosystems under climate change and ocean acidification. Front. Mar. Sci. 4, 158 (2017).
Jones, K. R., Watson, J. E. M., Possingham, H. P. & Klein, C. J. Incorporating climate change into spatial conservation prioritisation: a review. Biol. Conserv. 194, 121–130 (2016).
Green, A. L. et al. Larval dispersal and movement patterns of coral reef fishes, and implications for marine reserve network design. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 90, 1215–1247 (2015).
Krueck, N. C. et al. Incorporating larval dispersal into MPA design for both conservation and fisheries. Ecol. Appl. 27, 925–941 (2017).
van Kerkhoff, L. et al. Towards future-oriented conservation: managing protected areas in an era of climate change. Ambio 48, 699–713 (2019).
Ling, S. D. & Johnson, C. R. Marine reserves reduce risk of climate-driven phase shift by reinstating size- and habitat-specific trophic interactions. Ecol. Appl. 22, 1232–1245 (2012).
Maxwell, S. L., Venter, O., Jones, K. R. & Watson, J. E. M. Integrating human responses to climate change into conservation vulnerability assessments and adaptation planning. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1355, 98–116 (2015).
Bennett, J. R. et al. When to monitor and when to act: value of information theory for multiple management units and limited budgets. J. Appl. Ecol. 55, 2102–2113 (2018).
Burgass, M. J., Halpern, B. S., Nicholson, E. & Milner-Gulland, E. J. Navigating uncertainty in environmental composite indicators. Ecol. Indic. 75, 268–278 (2017).
Bennett, J. R. et al. Polar lessons learned: long-term management based on shared threats in Arctic and Antarctic environments. Front. Ecol. Environ. 13, 316–324 (2015).
Hughes, T. P. et al. Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals. Nature 543, 373–377 (2017).
Bai, Y. et al. Developing China’s ecological redline policy using ecosystem services assessments for land use planning. Nat. Commun. 9, 3034 (2018).
Hughes, A. C. Understanding and minimizing environmental impacts of the belt and road initiative. Conserv. Biol. 33, 883–894 (2019).
Alamgir, M. et al. High-risk infrastructure projects pose imminent threats to forests in Indonesian Borneo. Sci. Rep. 9, 140 (2019).
Azevedo, A. A. et al. Limits of Brazil’s forest code as a means to end illegal deforestation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 7653–7658 (2017).
Simmonds, J. S. et al. Moving from biodiversity offsets to a target-based approach for ecological compensation. Conserv. Lett. 13, e12695 (2020).
Spalding, M. D., Agostini, V. N., Rice, J. & Grant, S. M. Pelagic provinces of the world: a biogeographic classification of the world’s surface pelagic waters. Ocean Coast. Manage. 60, 19–30 (2012).
NatureServe. Bird Species Distribution Maps of the World (BirdLife International, 2018).
Hijmans, R. J., Cameron, S. E., Parra, J. L., Jones, P. G. & Jarvis, A. Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas. Int. J. Climatol. 25, 1965–1978 (2005).
Pauly, D. et al. Sea Around Us Concepts, Design and Data. www.seaaroundus.org (2020).
Ferraro, P. J. & Pressey, R. L. Measuring the difference made by conservation initiatives: protected areas and their environmental and social impacts. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 370, 20140270 (2015).
Díaz, S. et al. Pervasive human-driven decline of life on Earth points to the need for transformative change. Science 366, eaax3100 (2019).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
