Hairston, N. G., Smith, F. E. & Slobodkin, L. B. Community structure, population control, and competition. Am. Nat. 94, 421–425 (1960).
Messier, F. Ungulate population models with predation: A case study with the North American moose. Ecology 75, 478–488 (1994).
Solberg, E. J., Saether, B., Strand, O. & Loison, A. Dynamics of a harvested moose population in a variable environment. J. Anim. Ecol. 68, 186–204 (2002).
Lavsund, S., Nygrén, T. & Solberg, E. Status of moose populations and challenges to moose management in Fennoscandia. Alces 39, 109–130 (2003).
Chapron, G. et al. Recovery of large carnivores in Europe’s modern human-dominated landscapes. Science 346, 1517–1519 (2014).
Linnell, J. D. C. et al. The challenges and opportunities of coexisting with wild ungulates in the human-dominated landscapes of Europe’s Anthropocene. Biol. Conserv. 244, 108500 (2020).
Carter, N. H. & Linnell, J. D. C. Co-adaptation is key to coexisting with large carnivores. Trends Ecol. Evol. 31, 575–578 (2016).
Ikeda, T. et al. Effects of culling intensity on diel and seasonal activity patterns of sika deer (Cervus nippon). Sci. Rep. 9, 1–8 (2019).
Yovovich, V., Allen, M. L., Macaulay, L. T. & Wilmers, C. C. Using spatial characteristics of apex carnivore communication and reproductive behaviors to predict responses to future human development. Biodivers. Conserv. 29, 2589–2603 (2020).
van Eeden, L. M. et al. Carnivore conservation needs evidence-based livestock protection. PLoS Biol. 16, 1–8 (2018).
Nilsen, E. B. et al. Moose harvesting strategies in the presence of wolves. J. Appl. Ecol. 42, 389–399 (2005).
Gervasi, V. et al. Predicting the potential demographic impact of predators on their prey: A comparative analysis of two carnivore-ungulate systems in Scandinavia. J. Anim. Ecol. 81, 443–454 (2012).
Bassi, E., Gazzola, A., Bongi, P., Scandura, M. & Apollonio, M. Relative impact of human harvest and wolf predation on two ungulate species in Central Italy. Ecol. Res. 35, 662–674 (2020).
Gaillard, J.-M., Festa-Bianchet, M. & Yoccoz, N. G. Population dynamics of large herbivores: Variable recruitment with constant adult survival. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13, 58–63 (1998).
Caughley, G. Analysis of Vertebrate Populations (Wiley, New York, 1977).
Sæther, B.-E., Engen, S. & Solberg, E. J. Optimal harvest of age-structured populations of moose Alces alces in a fluctuating environment. Wildl. Biol. 7, 171–179 (2001).
Wikenros, C., Sand, H., Bergström, R., Liberg, O. & Chapron, G. Response of moose hunters to predation following wolf return in Sweden. PLoS One 10, e0119957 (2015).
Storaas, T., Gundersen, H., Henriksen, H. & Andreassen, H. The economic value of moose—a review. Alces 37, 9–107 (2001).
Boman, M., Mattsson, L., Ericsson, G. & Kriström, B. Moose hunting values in Sweden now and two decades ago: The Swedish hunters revisited. Environ. Resour. Econ. 50, 515–530 (2011).
Eurostat & Commission, E. Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery Statistics 2013. (Artemis Information Management, 2017).
Gill, R. M. A. A review of damage by mammals in north temperate forests: 3. Impact on trees and forests. Forestry 65, 363–388 (1992).
Liberg, O., Bergström, R., Kindberg, J. & von Essen, H. Ungulates and their management in Sweden. In European Ungulates and Their Management in the 21st Century (eds Apollonio, M. et al.) 37–70 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010).
Edenius, L., Ericsson, G., Kempe, G., Bergström, R. & Danell, K. The effects of changing land use and browsing on aspen abundance and regeneration: A 50-year perspective from Sweden. J. Appl. Ecol. 48, 301–309 (2011).
Jonzén, N. et al. Sharing the bounty-Adjusting harvest to predator return in the Scandinavian human-wolf-bear-moose system. Ecol. Modell. 265, 140–148 (2013).
Fryxell, J. M., Packer, C., McCann, K., Solberg, E. J. & Saether, B.-E. Resource management cycles and the sustainability of harvested wildlife populations. Science 328, 903–906 (2010).
Sylvén, S. Moose harvest strategy to maximize yield value for multiple goal management—a simulation study. Agric. Syst. 49, 277–298 (1995).
Sand, H., Zimmermann, B., Wabakken, P., Andren, H. & Pedersen, H. C. Using GPS technology and GIS cluster analyses to estimate kill rates in wolf-ungulate ecosystems. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 33, 914–925 (2005).
Sand, H. et al. Summer kill rates and predation pattern in a wolf-moose system: Can we rely on winter estimates?. Oecologia 156, 53–64 (2008).
Sand, H. Life history patterns in female moose (Alces alces): The relationship between age, body size, fecundity and environmental conditions. Oecologia 106, 212–220 (1996).
Ericsson, G., Wallin, K., Ball, J. P. & Broberg, M. Age-related reproductive effort and senscence in free-ranging moose, Alces alces. Ecology 82, 1613–1620 (2001).
Sandström, C., Di Gasper, S. W. & Öhman, K. Conflict resolution through ecosystem-based management: The case of Swedish moose management. Int. J. Commons 7, 549–570 (2013).
Dressel, S., Johansson, M., Ericsson, G. & Sandström, C. Perceived adaptive capacity within a multi-level governance setting: The role of bonding, bridging, and linking social capital. Environ. Sci. Policy 104, 88–97 (2020).
Tallian, A. et al. Competition between apex predators? Brown bears decrease wolf kill rate on two continents. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 284, 20162368 (2017).
Grøtan, V., Sæther, B. E., Lillegård, M., Solberg, E. J. & Engen, S. Geographical variation in the influence of density dependence and climate on the recruitment of Norwegian moose. Oecologia 161, 685–695 (2009).
Ueno, M., Solberg, E. J., Iijima, H., Rolandsen, C. M. & Gangsei, L. E. Performance of hunting statistics as spatiotemporal density indices of moose (Alces alces) in Norway. Ecosphere 5, 1–20 (2014).
Beschta, R. L. & Ripple, W. J. Large predators and trophic cascades in terrestrial ecosystems of the western United States. Biol. Conserv. 142, 2401–2414 (2009).
Ausilio, G. Recolonization of Wolves in Sweden—Does it Affect Moose Browsing Damage on Scots Pine? (Lund University, Lund, 2018).
Gicquel, M., Sand, H., Månsson, J., Wallgren, M. & Wikenros, C. Does recolonization of wolves affect moose browsing damage on young Scots pine?. For. Ecol. Manag. 20, 20 (2020).
Sand, H., Cederlund, G. & Danell, K. Geographical and latitudinal variation in growth patterns and adult body size of Swedish moose (Alces alces). Oecologia 102, 433–442 (1995).
Melis, C. et al. Predation has a greater impact in less productive environments: Variation in roe deer, Capreolus capreolus, population density across Europe. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 18, 724–734 (2009).
Zimmermann, B. Predatory behaviour of wolves in Scandinavia. (PdD thesis, Faculty of Applied Ecology and Agricultural Sciences, Høgskolan i Hedmark, 2014).
Zimmermann, B. et al. Predator-dependent functional response in wolves: From food limitation to surplus killing. J. Anim. Ecol. 84, 102–112 (2015).
Mattisson, J. et al. Home range size variation in a recovering wolf population: Evaluating the effect of environmental, demographic, and social factors. Oecologia 173, 813–825 (2013).
Kuijper, D. P. J. et al. Paws without claws? Ecological effects of large carnivores in anthropogenic landscapes. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 283, 20161625 (2016).
Darimont, C. T., Fox, C. H., Bryan, H. M. & Reimchen, T. E. The unique ecology of human predators. Science 349, 858–860 (2015).
Brodie, J. et al. Relative influence of human harvest, carnivores, and weather on adult female elk survival across western North America. J. Appl. Ecol. 50, 295–305 (2013).
Esseen, P.-A., Ehnström, B., Ericson, L. & Sjöberg, K. Boreal forest. Ecol. Bull. 46, 16–47 (1997).
Zimmermann, B., Nelson, L., Wabakken, P., Sand, H. & Liberg, O. Behavioral responses of wolves to roads: Scale-dependent ambivalence. Behav. Ecol. 25, 1353–1364 (2014).
Wabakken, P., Sand, H., Liberg, O. & Bjärvall, A. The recovery, distribution, and population dynamics of wolves on the Scandinavian peninsula, 1978–1998. Can. J. Zool. 79, 710–725 (2001).
Wabakken, P., Svensson, L., Maartmann, E., Åkesson, M. & Flagstad, Ø. Bestandsovervåking av Ulv Vinteren 2017–2018/Inventering av Varg Vintern 2017–2018. (2018).
Sand, H., Eklund, A., Zimmermann, B., Wikenros, C. & Wabakken, P. Prey selection of Scandinavian wolves: Single large or several small?. PLoS One 11, 1–17 (2016).
Liberg, O. et al. Monitoring of wolves in Scandinavia. Hystrix 23, 29–34 (2012).
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, 2018).
van Rij, J., Wieling, M., Baayen, R. & van Rijn, H. itsadug: Interpreting Time Series and Autocorrelated Data Using GAMMs. R package version 2.4. (2020).
Lenth, R. emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, Aka Least-Squares Means (2020).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
