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Ethics statement
All procedures used in these experiments were in accordance with protocol SW1401 of the SWFSC Animal Care and Use Committee. YOY California yellowtail were collected under California Department of Fish and Wildlife Scientific Collection Permit #SC-12372. Experimental protocols were approved by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration Southwest Fisheries Science Center (NOAA SWFSC) Animal Care & Use Committee. Reporting of methods and results were in compliance with ARRIVE guidelines for animal research53.
Collection and captive husbandry of yellowtail
YOY California yellowtail (14–19 cm) were collected from offshore floating kelp mats near San Diego, CA, USA on September 12, 2012. Fish were caught using unbaited sabiki bait rigs, then immediately transferred to an onboard flow-through holding tank. On land, fish were transported in the holding tank on the trailered vessel to NOAA’s SWFSC Experimental Aquaria Facility in La Jolla, CA where they were transferred via dipnet to holding tanks. Fish were first held in 300 × 150 × 90 cm oval tanks (~ 3200 L) with flow-through, filtered local seawater at local ambient seawater temperature (~ 18 °C) and reared on a diet of Bio-Oregon BioTrout feed pellets. Pellets were presented immediately to newly transferred fish and fish began feeding 0–7 days after capture. Yellowtail were fed pellets 6 days/week to apparent satiation. After 525 days, the now larger yellowtail (42–50 cm) were transferred to a larger circular tank (diameter 3.7 m, capacity 9600 L) with the same filtered seawater at the same ambient temperatures (~ 18 °C) and tagged in the dorsal musculature with uniquely numbered and colored Floy plastic spaghetti tags. Yellowtail were switched to a diet of Pacific mackerel (Scomber japonicus) and market squid (Doryteuthis opalescens), both sourced off the coast of southern California (McRoberts Sales Co.). Yellowtail were fed mackerel and squid (by mass: 62% mackerel, 38% squid) 6 days/week to apparent satiation.
Yellowtail muscle was sampled at t = 0 (the day of diet switch), followed by sampling intervals ranging from 27 to 119 days (mean interval 60 ± 27 days) depending on perceived condition of yellowtail and conditions for sampling. Samples were collected by lowering tank water levels, capturing yellowtail in a rubber knotless net, then transferring fish to vinyl cradles. Biopsy punches (Cook Quick-Core G07821) were used to remove 0.1–0.2 g of white muscle from the dorsal musculature. When possible, fork length (FL; cm) was measured at the time of sampling. Muscle tissue was also collected from the diet (dorsal musculature from mackerel and mantle tissue, with the outer membrane removed, from squid) throughout the study for SIA. Sampling continued until yellowtail were removed due to poor condition, suffered natural mortality, or became too large to remain in the holding tank (t = 753 days after diet switch, the endpoint of the study).
YOY yellowtail (13.7–18.8 cm, 15.7 cm ± 1.7; 0.02–0.08 kg; 0.04 kg ± 0.02) fed well on pellet diet, increasing ~ threefold in length and ~ 40-fold in mass over 525 days. After 525 days, 21 similar-sized (42–50 cm FL, 46.0 cm ± 2.5; 1.0–2.2 kg, 1.7 kg ± 0.3) individual yellowtail were selected for the diet switch experiment to fish/squid (Fig. 1). During the course of the diet switch experiment, 11 individual fish were removed from captive conditions before reaching apparent isotopic steady-state due to poor physical condition, lack of feeding, or natural mortality. A total of 10 yellowtail fed consistently in captivity for a long enough period to reach apparent steady-state with new diet (595–753 days) allowing calculation of individual turnover rates in these fish. This allowed for estimates of Δ15Nlow and Δ13Clow and population-wide isotopic turnover estimates from 21 fish subjected to the diet switch, and Δ15Nhigh and Δ13Chigh and individual yellowtail turnover estimates from 10 individuals in captive conditions for 595–753 days that reached steady-state with new diet.
SIA of yellowtail and diet
Yellowtail dorsal muscle tissue and prey muscle tissue samples were immediately stored in cryovials at  − 20 °C. Feed pellets were analyzed whole. All samples were then frozen at  − 80 °C and subsequently lyophilized and ground to a homogenous powder for isotope analysis. The δ13C and δ15N values of all samples were determined at the University of Hawaii using an on-line C–N analyzer coupled with a Delta XP isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Replicate reference materials of atmospheric nitrogen and V-PDB were analyzed every 10 samples, and analytical precision was  More

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Study system and study population
We used the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (Chrysomelidae, Bruchinae). In the laboratory, these beetles are kept under conditions (dry legume storage environments; see below) that mimic the conditions in which they have evolved for thousands of generations, since this species has adapted to exploiting dry seeds in human grain storages for several thousands of years16,17. In our study, we used one of the preferred hosts of this beetle, the mung bean (Vigna radiata, hereafter referred simply as beans). After mating, the inseminated females glue eggs on the surface of the beans. After hatching, the first larval instar burrows into the bean’s endosperm where it feeds and completes development. Importantly, females are able to discriminate clean from previously infested beans18. Whenever possible, females prefer to distribute their eggs uniformly (1 egg/seed), trying to avoid laying eggs on beans on which an egg (own or non-own) has already been deposited. This is because only a very small fraction of eggs deposited in an already parasitized bean develop successfully as a result of bean size limitations and larval competition19. When host deprivation is maintained for a long time ( > 4 days20) females may lay eggs on unsuitable substrates as well. In our population, infested Vigna radiata beans typically contain a single larva developing inside, and generally, a bean of this species provides resources to support only the development of one individual21. The species is sexually dimorphic, has a short generation time ( 0.95; p  More