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Experimental analysis of roasted and raw turtle butchery and implications for early human cognition and behaviour

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Abstract

Chelonid exploitation – including tortoises and freshwater turtles – has been increasingly recognised as a significant element of Palaeolithic subsistence in the Mediterranean and Iberian Peninsula. This study offers an experimental assessment of fire’s role in processing these reptiles, contrasting raw and roasted specimens to evaluate impacts on butchery efficiency, surface modifications, skeletal representation and lithic use-wear. The roasting process markedly reduced disarticulation effort and time, irrespective of the operator’s experience. Cut marks and percussion traces were more frequent in raw-processed individuals, while burnt specimens displayed extensive thermal damage, particularly on carapace plates. However, Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed limited diagnostic potential for low-intensity thermal exposure. Conversely, lithic tools used in processing exhibited macroscopic edge damage and minor polishes, paralleling wear patterns documented in the butchery of other small fauna. These results align with archaeological evidence from multiple Iberian and Mediterranean sites, suggesting a culturally structured practice of in-shell roasting and anatomical disarticulation. The finds highlight fire’s role in labour optimisation and knowledge transmission, supporting broader discussions on small game exploitation and cognitive planning in early human behaviour.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available in the CORA repository and can be accessed through the following links https:/dataverse.csuc.cat/dataset.xhtml?persistentId = doi%3A10.34810%2Fdata2413 and https:/dataverse.csuc.cat/dataset.xhtml?persistentId = doi%3A10.34810%2Fdata2412 Our study does not involve human participants in the usual sense. All individuals who appear in the images are the authors of the study and no other identifiable persons or patient data are included. For this reason, we consider a formal informed-consent statement from study participants not applicable. All authors explicitly agree to the publication of these images and any associated information in an online open-access format.

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the use of the Vertebrate Reference Collection (Osteoteca) of the Archaeosciences Laboratory of the Património Cultural I.P, in Lisbon, Portugal. We also extend our gratitude to the PRISC infrastructure (Portuguese Research Infrastructure of Scientific Collections) for their support.

Funding

Financial support has been provided by the research project “PALAEO.WEST.IBERIA – Contrasting Dietary Patterns and Adaptive Responses among Modern Humans, Neanderthals and Pre-Neanderthals in the Atlantic Façade of Iberia” funded through the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) Scientific Research and Technological Development (IC&DT) call across all scientific domains, Call Reference MPr-2023–12, project number 2023.16301.ICDT. This research was also funded by Mariana Nabais’ postdoc contract for project “SMALLPREY – Neanderthal and Anatomically Modern Human interactions with small prey in Atlantic Iberia throughout the changing environments of the Pleistocene”, as part of the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 101034349, and from the State Research Agency of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the Program Maria de Maeztu Unit of Excellence (CEX2019-000945-M). Additional support has been given by Portuguese funds through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia in the framework of the project “UID/00698/2025 (doi.org/https://doi.org/10.54499/UID/00698/2025): Centre for Archaeology. University of Lisbon”. Ruth Blasco develops her work within the project PID 2022-138590NB-C41 funded by MCIN/AEI/https://doi.org/10.13039/501100011033/FEDER, UE and the projects 2021-SGR-01237 and CLT009/22/000045 funded by the Generalitat de Catalunya. Ruth Blasco is supported by a Ramon y Cajal research contract by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (RYC 2019–026386-I). Valentina Lubrano is beneficiary of a FCT Doctoral Grant (reference: 2021.05263.BD). Anna Rufà is currently a beneficiary of a CEEC – 3rd Edition research contract promoted by the Portuguese FCT (reference: 2020. 00877.CEECIND) and her research is also funded in part by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, I.P. (FCT, https://ror.org/00snfqn589) under the grant UID/0421. Mariana Nabais, Ruth Blasco, Valentina Lubrano and Anna Rufà also participate in the Spanish MICINN project NEANDIVERSITY2, PID2022-138590NB-C41.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. UNIARQ – Centre for Archaeology, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Mariana Nabais & Marina Igreja

  2. SWAD – South-West Archaeology Digs, Moura, Portugal

    Mariana Nabais

  3. IPHES-CERCA – Catalan Institute of Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution, Tarragona, Spain

    Ruth Blasco

  4. Department of History and Art History, Área de Prehistòria, Rovira i Virgili University, Tarragona, Spain

    Ruth Blasco

  5. Autónoma University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

    Iratxe Boneta

  6. Arqueozoo S.L, Madrid, Spain

    Iratxe Boneta

  7. LARC – Archaeosciences Laboratory (LARC), Património Cultural I.P, Lisbon, Portugal

    David Gonçalves & Marina Igreja

  8. Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

    David Gonçalves

  9. Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

    David Gonçalves

  10. CIBIO – Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

    Marina Igreja

  11. ICArEHB – Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and the Evolution of Human Behaviour, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    Valentina Lubrano & Anna Rufà

  12. PACEA UMR 5199, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France

    Anna Rufà

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  1. Mariana Nabais
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Contributions

Conceptualisation: MN Data curation: MN Formal analysis: MN, MI, DG Funding acquisition: MN, AR, RB Investigation: MN, MI, DG Methodology: MN, IB, MI, DG Resources: MN, AR, MI, DG Visualisation: MN, MI, DG Writing – original draft: MN, MI, DG Writing – review & editing: MN, AR, IB, MI, VL, RB, DG.

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Mariana Nabais.

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Our study does not involve human participants in the usual sense. All individuals who appear in the images are the authors of the study and no other identifiable persons or patient data are included. For this reason, we consider a formal informed-consent statement from study participants not applicable. All authors explicitly agree to the publication of these images and any associated information in an online open-access format.

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Nabais, M., Blasco, R., Boneta, I. et al. Experimental analysis of roasted and raw turtle butchery and implications for early human cognition and behaviour.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31738-z

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Keywords

  • Experimental archaeology
  • Taphonomy
  • Subsistence strategies
  • Lithic use-wear
  • FTIR
  • Chelonids

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