Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda (2015).
About the JMP. JMP https://washdata.org/how-we-work/about-jmp (2019).
Do you know all 17 goals? United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs https://sdgs.un.org/goals (2021).
Delivering the promise: Safe water and sanitation for all by 2030: The SDG 6 Global Acceleration Framework: In Brief (UN Water, 2020).
Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: five years into the SDGs (WHO and UNICEF, 2021).
Cronk, R., Slaymaker, T. & Bartram, J. Monitoring drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in non-household settings: priorities for policy and practice. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 218, 694–703 (2015).
Google Scholar
Bain, R., Johnston, R., Mitis, F., Chatterley, C. & Slaymaker, T. Establishing sustainable development goal baselines for household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene services. Water 10, 1711–1729 (2018).
Google Scholar
JMP Drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in schools: global baseline report 2018 (WHO and UNICEF, 2018); https://washdata.org/sites/default/files/documents/reports/2018-11/JMP%20WASH%20in%20Schools%20WEB%20final.pdf
JMP Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in schools: 2000–2021 data update (WHO and UNICEF, 2022).
Blanton, E. et al. Evaluation of the role of school children in the promotion of point-of-use water treatment and handwashing in schools and households—Nyanza Province, Western Kenya, 2007. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 82, 664–671 (2010).
Google Scholar
Hunter, P. R. et al. Impact of the provision of safe drinking water on school absence rates in Cambodia: a quasi-experimental study. PLoS ONE 9, 5 (2014).
Google Scholar
Talaat, M. et al. Effects of hand hygiene campaigns on incidence of laboratory-confirmed influenza and absenteeism in schoolchildren, Cairo, Egypt. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17, 619–625 (2011).
Google Scholar
O’Reilly, C. E. et al. The impact of a school-based safe water and hygiene programme on knowledge and practices of students and their parents: Nyanza Province, western Kenya, 2006. Epidemiol. Infect. 136, 80–91 (2008).
Google Scholar
Freeman, M. C., Clasen, T., Brooker, S. J., Akoko, D. O. & Rheingans, R. The impact of a school-based hygiene, water quality and sanitation intervention on soil-transmitted helminth reinfection: a cluster-randomized trial. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 89, 875–883 (2013).
Google Scholar
Khanna, A., Goyal, R. & Bhawsar, R. Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan. J. Health Manag. 7, 91–107 (2005).
Google Scholar
Shah, V. et al. Effects of menstrual health and hygiene on school absenteeism and drop-out among adolescent girls in rural Gambia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19, 3337 (2022).
Google Scholar
Adukia, A. Sanitation and education. Am. Econ. J.: Appl. Econ. 9, 23–59 (2017).
Njuguna, V. et al. The Sustainability and Impact of School Sanitation, Water and Hygiene Education in Kenya (International Water and Sanitation Centre and UNICEF, 2008).
Caruso, B. A., Dreibelbis, R., Ogutu, E. A. & Rheingans, R. If you build it will they come? Factors influencing rural primary pupils’ urination and defecation practices at school in western Kenya. J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 4, 642–653 (2014).
Google Scholar
Mooijman, A., Snel, M., Ganguly, S. & Shordt, K. Strengthening water, sanitation and hygiene in schools – a WASH guidance manual with a focus on South Asia (International Water and Sanitation Centre, 2009).
Garn, J. V. et al. A cluster-randomized trial assessing the impact of school water, sanitation, and hygiene improvements on pupil enrollment and gender parity in enrollment. J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 3, 592–601 (2013).
Google Scholar
Trinies, V., Garn, J. V., Chang, H. H. & Freeman, M. C. The impact of a school-based water, sanitation, and hygiene program on absenteeism, diarrhea, and respiratory infection: a matched-control trial in Mali. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 94, 1418–1425 (2016).
Google Scholar
Grant, M., Lloyd, C. & Mensch, B. Menstruation and school absenteeism: evidence from rural malawi. Comp. Educ. Rev. 57, 260–284 (2013).
Google Scholar
Dreibelbis, R. et al. Water, sanitation, and primary school attendance: a multi-level assessment of determinants of household-reported absence in Kenya. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 33, 457–465 (2013).
Google Scholar
Jasper, C., Le, T.-T. & Bartram, J. Water and sanitation in schools: a systematic review of the health and educational outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 9, 2772–2787 (2012).
Google Scholar
McMichael, C. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in schools in low-income countries: a review of evidence of impact. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16, 359 (2019).
Google Scholar
Pérez-Foguet, A., Giné-Garriga, R. & Ortego, M. I. Compositional data for global monitoring: the case of drinking water and sanitation. Sci. Total Environ. 590–591, 554–565 (2017).
Google Scholar
Schools. JMP https://washdata.org/monitoring/schools (2018).
Hutton, G., Haller, L. & Bartram, J. Global cost-benefit analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions. J. Water Health 5, 481–502 (2007).
Google Scholar
Song, L., Appleton, S. & Knight, J. Why do girls in rural China have lower school enrollment? World Dev. 34, 1639–1653 (2006).
Google Scholar
Mahmud, S. & Amin, S. Girls’ schooling and marriage in rural Bangladesh. Res. Sociol. Educ. 15, 71–99 (2006).
Google Scholar
Drèze, J. & Kingdon, G. G. School participation in rural India. Rev. Dev. Econ. 5, 1–24 (2001).
Google Scholar
Iddrisu, A. M. The effect of poverty, household structure and child work on school enrolment. J. Educ. Pract. 5, 145–156 (2014).
Daoud, J. I. Multicollinearity and regression analysis. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 949, 012009–012015 (2017).
Google Scholar
Farrar, D. E. & Glauber, R. R. Multicollinearity in regression analysis: the problem revisited. Rev. Econ. Stat. 49, 92–107 (1967).
Google Scholar
Keller, K. R. I. Investment in primary, secondary, and higher education and the effects on economic growth. Contemp. Econ. Policy 24, 18–34 (2006).
Google Scholar
Kiran, B. Testing the impact of educational expenditures on economic growth: new evidence from Latin American countries. Qual. Quant. 48, 1181–1190 (2014).
Google Scholar
Myrskylä, M., Kohler, H.-P. & Billari, F. C. Advances in development reverse fertility declines. Nature 460, 741–743 (2009).
Google Scholar
Ward, J. L. & Viner, R. M. The impact of income inequality and national wealth on child and adolescent mortality in low and middle-income countries. BMC Public Health 17, 8 (2017).
Google Scholar
Koolwal, G. & van de Walle, D. Access to water, women’s work, and child outcomes. Econ. Dev. Cult. Change 61, 369–405 (2013).
Google Scholar
Freeman, M. C. et al. Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene and sanitation programme on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial. Trop. Med. Int. Health 17, 380–391 (2012).
Swanson, E. World Development Indicators 2007 81 (World Bank Publications, 2007).
Chatterley, C. et al. Institutional WASH in the SDGs: data gaps and opportunities for national monitoring. J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 8, 595–606 (2018).
Google Scholar
Vedachalam, S. et al. Underreporting of high-risk water and sanitation practices undermines progress on global targets. PLoS ONE 12, 20 (2017).
Google Scholar
Exley, J. L. R., Liseka, B., Cumming, O. & Ensink, J. H. J. The sanitation ladder, what constitutes an improved form of sanitation? Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 1086–1094 (2015).
Google Scholar
Nganyanyuka, K., Martinez, J., Wesselink, A., Lungo, J. H. & Georgiadou, Y. Accessing water services in Dar es Salaam: are we counting what counts? Habitat Int. 44, 358–366 (2014).
Google Scholar
Evans, B. et al. Limited services? The role of shared sanitation in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 7, 349–351 (2017).
Google Scholar
Bain, R., Johnston, R., Khan, S., Hancioglu, A. & Slaymaker, T. Monitoring drinking water quality in nationally representative household surveys in low- and middle-income countries: cross-sectional analysis of 27 multiple indicator cluster surveys 2014–2020. Environ. Health Perspect. 129, 19 (2021).
Google Scholar
Morgan, C., Bowling, M., Bartram, J. & Lyn Kayser, G. Water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools: status and implications of low coverage in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 220, 950–959 (2017).
Google Scholar
Sommer, M. & Sahin, M. Overcoming the taboo: advancing the global agenda for menstrual hygiene management for schoolgirls. Am. J. Public Health 103, 1556–1559 (2013).
Google Scholar
Elledge, M. F. et al. Menstrual hygiene management and waste disposal in low and middle income countries—a review of the literature. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15, 20 (2018).
Google Scholar
Spears, D. Exposure to open defecation can account for the Indian enigma of child height. J. Dev. Econ. 146, 17 (2020).
Google Scholar
World Bank Open Data https://data.worldbank.org/ (World Bank, 2019).
Gelman, A. & Hill, J. Data Analysis Using Regression and Hierarchical/Multilevel Models Vol. 1 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).
Fertility rate, total (births per woman) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.iN (World Bank, 2018).
Breierova, L. & Duflo, E. The Impact of Education on Fertility and Child Mortality: Do Fathers Really Matter Less Than Mothers? Working Paper No. 10513 (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004); http://www.nber.org/papers/w10513.pdf
Duflo, E., Dupas, P. & Kremer, M. Education, HIV, and early fertility: experimental evidence from Kenya. Am. Econ. Rev. 105, 2757–2797 (2015).
Google Scholar
Osili, U. O. & Long, B. T. Does female schooling reduce fertility? Evidence from Nigeria. J. Dev. Econ. 87, 57–75 (2008).
Google Scholar
Sen, A. Development as Freedom (Oxford Univ. Press, 1999).
Graham, J. P., Hirai, M. & Kim, S.-S. An analysis of water collection labor among women and children in 24 Sub-Saharan African countries. PLoS ONE 11, 14 (2016).
Google Scholar
Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update (WHO and UNICEF, 2014).
Beckman, P. J. & Gallo, J. Rural education in a global context. Glob. Educ. Rev. 2, 1–4 (2015).
Bhatia, A., Krieger, N. & Subramanian, S. V. Learning from history about reducing infant mortality: contrasting the centrality of structural interventions to early 20th-century successes in the United States to their neglect in current global initiatives. Milbank Q. 97, 285–345 (2019).
Google Scholar
RStudio: Integrated Development for R v.1.2.1335 (RStudio, 2018); http://www.rstudio.com/
Robitzsch, A. & Grund, S. miceadds: Some additional multiple imputation functions, especially for ‘mice’. R package version 3.9.0 (2020).
Wickham, H. ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. R package version 3.3.2 (2016).
Becker, R. A., Wilks A. R., Brownrigg, R., Minka T. P. & Deckmyn, A. maps: Draw geographical maps. R package version 3.3.0 https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/maps/index.html (2018).
Auguie, B. egg: Extensions for ‘ggplot2’: Custom geom, custom themes, plot alignment, labelled panels, symmetric scales, and fixed panel size. R package version 0.4.5 (2019).
Source: Resources - nature.com
