Philippa Kaur

AbstractThe photovoltaic (PV) fishery breeding model integrates the generation of solar energy with aquaculture, yet its impacts on aquatic organisms remain poorly understood. This study investigated how PV panel shading affects the intestinal microbial ecosystem of Litopenaeus vannamei. We conducted a controlled 80-day experiment comparing shrimp reared under PV panels (ZG group) versus those reared in traditional open ponds (CK group), with quadruplicate 800 m² ponds per group under standardized conditions (80 shrimp/m², salinity 15–18‰). High-throughput 16 S rRNA sequencing was employed to analyze microbial composition, diversity, and predicted functional profiles. The growth data were collected daily during the initial 20-day period and subsequently at five-day intervals thereafter. The results demonstrate that the ZG group exhibited significantly reduced body length compared to the CK group after 20 days of culture (P < 0.05), while body weight was significantly lower after 16 days (P < 0.05).‌ The results of the intestinal microbiota analysis showed that Proteobacteria and Firmicutes were the main components of the intestinal microbiota in the CK and ZG groups, while Oceanobacillus and Candidatus_Electronema were present as indicator species in the CK and ZG groups, respectively. Analysis of the Chao1 index and Shannon index revealed no significant differences in either the diversity or evenness of the intestinal microbiota of L. vannamei among the experimental groups. In addition, significant differences between the groups were detected by the β-diversity analysis. A predicted bacterial function analysis also revealed significant differences in functional abundance between the two groups. This study provides critical insight into how PV shading alters shrimp microbiota and growth performance, offering practical guidance for optimizing sustainable PV-aquaculture integrated systems.

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Data availability

The raw sequence data reported in this paper have been deposited in the Genome Sequence Archive in National Genomics Data Center, China National Center for Bioinformation / Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CRA024106) that are publicly accessible at [https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/gsa](https:/ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/gsa) .
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Download referencesFundingThis research was supported by Innovation of High Quality Fish Breeding Materials and Methods and Selection of New Varieties (Breeding Research Project) (2021YFYZ0015) and Sichuan Freshwater Fish Innovation Team of the National Modern Agricultural Industrial Technology System (SCCXTD-2025-15). In addition, We would like to thank Tongwei New Energy Co., Ltd. For their financial support in this study.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsFisheries Research Institute, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Sichuan Fisheries Research Institute), Chengdu, Sichuan, ChinaZhongmeng Zhao, Han Zhao, Huadong Li, Yuanliang Duan, Zhipeng Huang, Jian Zhou & Qiang LiTongwei New Energy Co., Ltd, Chengdu, Sichuan, ChinaXingyu Chen & Yongshuang WangAuthorsZhongmeng ZhaoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarXingyu ChenView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarYongshuang WangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarHan ZhaoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarHuadong LiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarYuanliang DuanView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarZhipeng HuangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarJian ZhouView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarQiang LiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsZ.Z.M., and L.Q. conceived and designed research. Z.Z.M., Z.H., W.Y.S, and C.X.Y. conducted experiments. Z.Z.M., Z.H., L.H.D., D.Y.L., H.Z.P., Z.L., and Z.J. analyzed data. Z.Z.M., C.X.Y., and L.Q. wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to
Xingyu Chen or Qiang Li.Ethics declarations

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All animal handling procedures were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the Fisheries Research Institute, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences (20220323002 A), following the recommendations in the U.K. Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act, 1986. At the same time, all methods were carried out by relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleZhao, Z., Chen, X., Wang, Y. et al. Effects of the photovoltaic fishery breeding model on intestinal microbiota structure and diversity in Litopenaeus vannamei.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34429-xDownload citationReceived: 17 October 2025Accepted: 29 December 2025Published: 04 January 2026DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34429-xShare this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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Keywords
Litopenaeus vannamei
The photovoltaic fishery breeding modelIntestinal microbiotaStructural compositionDiversity More

AbstractThe predatory mite, Neoseiulus baraki Athias-Henriot has been reported from the Asia, Africa and Americas, frequently in association with eriophyid and tetranychid mites, these are the most important pests of fig trees in different parts of the world. The objective of our study was to examine the influence of different diets on biological characteristics and life table parameters of the predatory mite Neoseiulus baraki under laboratory conditions. All trials were conducted on fig leaf discs in an incubator at 33 ± 2 °C, 55 ± 5% RH, and a photoperiod of 12:12 (L: D) h. As food sources for the predatory mite, nymphal stages of fig bud mite Aceria ficus (Cotte) (Acari: Eriophyidae), different life stages of two spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), corn pollen Zea mays L. and citrus pollen Citrus aurantium L. were selected. The results show that food type did not significantly effect on N. baraki survival; it varied between 95 and 98%. Development time was significantly shorter for N. baraki females fed on A. ficus (5.17 ± 0.16 days) than T. urticae (6.49 ± 0.31 days) or corn pollen (6.72 ± 0.20 days) or citrus pollen (6.91 ± 0.30 days). Female longevity varied from 21.31 ± 2.09 to 27.43 ± 1.78 days; the maximum value was noted on a diet of A. ficus. The longest oviposition period and greatest value of fecundity was observed on A. ficus, followed by T. urticae, corn pollen and citrus pollen. The net reproduction rate (Ro), finite rate of increase (λ) and intrinsic rate of increase (rm) reached the highest value on A. ficus. Considering these results, in the absence or scarcity of the primary prey in the fig orchards, corn pollen or citrus pollen can be recommended as supplementary or an alternative food for N. baraki. Furthermore, N. baraki has promising qualities to suppress A. ficus and T. urticae populations and is suitable as biocontrol agents against these pests.

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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe researchers would like to thank the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Qassim University for financial support (QU-APC-2026).FundingThis research was funded by Qassim University (QU-APC-2026).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture and Food, Qassim University, P.O. Box 6622, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi ArabiaMahmoud M. Al-AzzazyDepartment of Plant Production, College of Agriculture and Food, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi ArabiaSaleh S. AlhewairiniAuthorsMahmoud M. Al-AzzazyView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarSaleh S. AlhewairiniView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsThis manuscript was drafted by Mahmoud M. Al-Azzazy and Saleh S. Alhewairini. Laboratory work and statistical analysis were performed by Mahmoud M. Al-Azzazy and Saleh S. Alhewairini. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to
Mahmoud M. Al-Azzazy or Saleh S. Alhewairini.Ethics declarations

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleAl-Azzazy, M.M., Alhewairini, S.S. Influence of different diets on biological characteristics and life table parameters of the predatory mite, Neoseiulus baraki Hughes (Acari: Phytoseiidae).
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34143-8Download citationReceived: 15 November 2025Accepted: 24 December 2025Published: 04 January 2026DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-34143-8Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsBiological control
Aceria ficus

Tetranychus urticae
Alternative food More

Abstract

The complete mitochondrial genome of Clypeaster virescens was sequenced and analyzed to clarify its genomic features and evolutionary placement within Echinoidea. The 15,781 bp circular mitogenome encoded 37 mitochondrial genes, including 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 2 rRNAs, along with one control region. The nucleotide composition of the mitochondrial genome exhibits a high A + T content, with negative A-T skew and G-C skew. Using a 35-taxon dataset (34 echinoids and one holothuroid outgroup), phylogenetic analyses based on the complete mitochondrial genome robustly placed C. virescens within a well-supported Clypeasteroida clade alongside S. mai and A. mannii. The recovered topology also resolved major echinoid orders with strong support, including the early divergence of Echinothurioida and Diadematoida and the close relationship between Clypeasteroida and Spatangoida. These findings provide the first complete mitogenome for C. virescens, expand available molecular resources for Clypeasteroida, and establish a stable phylogenetic framework for future evolutionary and comparative studies on irregular echinoids.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are freely available in GenBank of NCBI (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/), with accession number PQ838327.
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Download referencesFundingThe study was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for Zhejiang Provincial Universities and Research Institutes (2024J002); National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (NO.42576115); Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (LY22D060001&LY20C190008); Key research and development projects in Xizang (XZ202301ZY0012N).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsMarine Science and Technology College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan, 316022, ChinaJinghua Wu, Mingzhe Han, Luxiu Gao, Shuaishuo Kang, Xinyi Niu, Bingjian Liu & Tianming WangNational Engineering Laboratory of Marine Germplasm Resources Exploration and Utilization, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan, 316022, ChinaLuxiu GaoAuthorsJinghua WuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMingzhe HanView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLuxiu GaoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarShuaishuo KangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarXinyi NiuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBingjian LiuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTianming WangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsJHW, BJL and TMW conceived and designed the research. JHW, MZH, LXG, SSK, XYN, BJL and TMW conducted experiments, analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to
Bingjian Liu or Tianming Wang.Ethics declarations

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleWu, J., Han, M., Gao, L. et al. The first complete mitochondrial genome and phylogenetic analysis of Clypeaster virescens (Clypeasteroida, Clypeasteridae).
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33261-7Download citationReceived: 27 September 2025Accepted: 17 December 2025Published: 04 January 2026DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33261-7Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsClypeasteroida
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AbstractUrbanization and low-carbon development are critical issues of global concern. As urbanization has reached its middle to late stages, cities face the dual pressures of development and environmental challenges. This study constructed a theoretical framework for urban vitality in six dimensions: social, economic, cultural, environmental, spatial, and perceptual. Using methods such as spatial syntax, entropy-weighted TOPSIS, deep learning models, and geographic detectors, we analysed the distribution characteristics of urban vitality in Yantai’s central area, explored how vitality-contributing factors influenced carbon emissions, and elucidated the association of urban vitality with carbon emissions. The results indicated that (1) urban vitality exhibited a multicentred distribution pattern of “low in the hinterland—high along the coast”; (2) significant differences existed in the impacts of various vitality dimensions on urban carbon emissions; (3) different urban vitality factors have varying levels of explanatory power regarding the spatial distribution of carbon emissions, with maximum building height exhibiting the strongest explanatory power, while the selection degree shows the weakest; and (4) the interactions between these factors typically demonstrate a two-factor enhancement, with the interaction between maximum building height and integration having the most significant effect on urban carbon emissions. This study innovatively integrates three-dimensional spatial and cultural perception perspectives, addressing the biases found in previous research that represented urban vitality from a singular viewpoint. It provides a more comprehensive framework and methodology for evaluating urban vitality, and the findings can offer recommendations for building low-carbon, high-vitality, and sustainable urban environments.

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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Jiang Hongqiang from Ludong University for his invaluable technical guidance. Additionally, we express our deepest appreciation to the anonymous reviewers and editors for their meticulous work and thoughtful suggestions, which have greatly enhanced this paper.FundingThis research was funded by the Youth Innovation Team Project in Universities of Shandong Province, grant number (2022RW026); the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number (42377207); the national natural science foundation of China, grant number (42207553); the Shandong Taishan Scholar Young Expert Program (tsqn202306240); the Shandong Provincial Humanities and Social Sciences Project, grant number (2022-YYGL-31); the general project of Undergraduate Teaching Reform in Shandong Province, grant number (Z2021177); the Key project of Research and Development Program in Shandong Province, grant number (2022RKY07006); the open foundation of State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment , grant number (2022SKL005); the open foundation of State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, CAS, grant number (SKLLQG2024); and Innovation Project for graduate students of Ludong University (Grant Number: IPGS2025-060).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsSchool of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Ludong University, Yantai, 264025, ChinaYige Zhang, Xiaohui Wang, Longsheng Wang, Yanfeng Zhang & Junxi SongCollege of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200000, ChinaYu YeSchool of Hydraulic and Civil Engineering, Ludong University, Yantai, 264025, ChinaGuodong LiuNanjing Institute of Geography and Lake Research, Limnology of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, 210044, ChinaShimou YaoAuthorsYige ZhangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarXiaohui WangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarYu YeView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLongsheng WangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarYanfeng ZhangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarJunxi SongView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarGuodong LiuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarShimou YaoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsYige Zhang: Conceptualization, methodology, software, writing—original draft preparation and formal analysis. Xiaohui Wang: Conceptualization, validation, writing—original draft preparation and funding acquisition. Yu Ye: Software, validation and methodology. Longsheng Wang: Investigation, funding acquisition, writing—review and editing. Yanfeng Zhang: Investigation and data curation. Junxi Song: Investigation. Guodong Liu: Visualization. Shimou Yao: Conceptualization and supervision.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to
Xiaohui Wang or Longsheng Wang.Ethics declarations

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleZhang, Y., Wang, X., Ye, Y. et al. Exploring the impact of urban vitality on carbon emission mechanisms using multi-source data.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29624-9Download citationReceived: 09 February 2025Accepted: 18 November 2025Published: 03 January 2026DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29624-9Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsUrban vitalityUrban carbon emissionsHuman perceptionEntropy-weighted TOPSISOptimal parameter geographic detector More

AbstractCoastal West Bengal, also known as ‘Cyclone capital of India’, is one of the most vulnerable regions due to the impact of cyclone-led climate disasters, disproportionately affecting the smallholder livestock rearers. Therefore, understanding the adaptation strategies available to smallholder livestock rearers and the factors influencing their adoption behaviour would facilitate an understanding of how they cope with the negative impacts of climate change. This study aimed to identify and explore climate adaptation strategies in the livestock sector as adopted by smallholder livestock rearers in coastal West Bengal. It also attempted to analyse the determinants influencing the adoption behaviour of the rearers at both levels of the adoption decision and intensity of adoption. Primary cross-sectional data were collected from 360 smallholder livestock rearers across all districts of coastal West Bengal using a multistage sampling approach. The double hurdle model was employed to assess adoption behaviour. Seven key adaptation strategies were identified, including improved feeding practices, shifting from large ruminants to small ruminants, availing of livestock insurance, well-ventilated housing, relocating animals to a safe place during disasters, preserving fodder, and providing more healthcare practices for livestock. While herd size, availability of climatic information, and community participation had a positive influence on the farmers’ adoption decisions, the availability of non-institutional credit and infrastructure had a negative influence. The intensity of adoption was positively influenced by herd size, access to institutional credit, training received, community participation, and access to livestock extension services. The findings support the need for policy advocacy to provide institutional credit, strengthen institutions to facilitate better extension services, and establish safe places for animals, such as cyclone shelters. Climate policy should consider addressing the heterogeneity responsible for non-adoption among farmers through awareness-building and the provision of incentives. Policy should also be geared towards easy accessibility to better healthcare services for livestock, availability of improved feeds and fodder, a community fodder bank and an organised market for livestock produce.

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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe have a sincere gratitude to the Director, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal and ADG (NASF), ICAR, New Delhi for providing all the facilities for this study. We are also thankful to our esteemed dairy farmers for sharing their views and giving time for the research work.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsNational Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, 132001, IndiaAmitava Panja, Sanchita Garai, Sanjit Maiti, Siddhesh Zade, Apoorva Veldandi & Gopal SankhalaICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, 284003, IndiaBishwa Bhaskar ChoudharyAuthorsAmitava PanjaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarSanchita GaraiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarSanjit MaitiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBishwa Bhaskar ChoudharyView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarSiddhesh ZadeView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarApoorva VeldandiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarGopal SankhalaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsConception of the study and design of the study was done by Amitava Panja, Sanchita Garai and Sanjit Maiti. Data collection and first draft writing was done by Amitava Panja. Data analysis and data curation was done by Amitava Panja, Sanchita Garai and Sanjit Maiti. Correction of methodology was done by Bishwa Bhaskar Choudhary. Software support was done by Siddhesh Zade and Apoorva Veldandi. Study was supervised by Gopal Sankhala. All authors commented on the previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Sanchita Garai.Ethics declarations

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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The study was conducted using ethical standards for carrying out survey-based research. Procedure of the study along with the methods used were approved both at departmental level and institutional level by Dairy Extension Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India. Before data collection, verbal consent was obtained from all the respondents regarding their participation. Simultaneously, they were also informed regarding the voluntariness for being a respondent, information confidentiality and identification anonymity.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articlePanja, A., Garai, S., Maiti, S. et al. Exploring determinants of climate change adaptation by smallholder livestock farmers in coastal West Bengal, India using a double hurdle econometric approach.
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KeywordsAdaptation strategiesLivestockClimate changeSmallholder livestock rearersDoubled hurdle model More

Various geoengineering approaches have been proposed for carbon dioxide (CO2) removal but their viability at scale remains unclear. Here, we consider the natural behaviour of driftwood, the warming-induced acceleration of sea-ice loss and tree growth, as well as the stability of cellulose in subfossil wood under cold-anoxic conditions, to introduce the concept of sinking timber from the boreal forest for durable CO2 sequestration at the deep Arctic Ocean floor.

IntroductionCapture and storage of atmospheric CO2 offer a means to stabilise climate alongside emission-reduction efforts. However, it is estimated that over 10 gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2 would have to be removed and sequestered each year over the 21st century to mitigate legacy effects of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and compensate for those sources expected to remain hard to decarbonise1,2,3. While reductions of fossil fuel burning must be prioritised at national and international levels3,4, different hybrid nature-engineering technologies have been recommended to capture and store CO2 from the Earth’s atmosphere. Although frequently presented as viable strategies for mitigating the effects of greenhouse gas emissions1,2, many approaches face questions regarding their scalability and the risk of counterproductive consequences for humans and the environment5.Among proposed solutions is ‘Wood Vaulting’ (WV) or ‘Wood Harvesting and Storage’ (WHS)1,2,5, which involves burying woody biomass in engineered enclosures that inhibit decomposition under anaerobic or frozen conditions, thereby ideally sequestering carbon on multi-millennial or even longer timescales. A prototype Wood Vault Unit (WVU) of 1 ha spatial extent and 20 m soil depth could store around 105 m3 of timber, which is equivalent to approximately 0.1 Mt CO2. It would therefore take annual construction of 104 WVU to operate at 1 Gt yr−1 of CO2 removal, corresponding to a roughly 25% increase in global logging (currently around 4 × 109 m3 of wood annually6). Substantial ecological and societal trade-offs can be expected from operating at such scale, including lasting impacts on soil carbon and mycorrhizal networks, biodiversity loss, and co-emissions associated with deforestation, transportation and vault construction5,7. Further, the putative benefits of WV would be offset if only a fraction of methane generated from decaying wood reaches the atmosphere8,9.Here, we examine the natural occurrence and behaviour of driftwood from the boreal forest to introduce a variant of WHS that would involve durable carbon storage on the deep, near anoxic floor of the Arctic Ocean.Driftwood solution for carbon sequestrationThe circumpolar boreal forest zone stretches across northern North America and Eurasia, from Alaska and northern Canada through Scandinavia and across the Siberian taiga. Characterised by cold climates, slow growing conifers, widespread peatlands, extensive permafrost soils, and gigantic river systems10,11,12, the world’s largest terrestrial biome also represents an enormous carbon pool13,14, with as much as 103 Gt (1018 g) of carbon stored in living trees, dead wood, soils and peat15. Unlike wildland tropical forests, the estimated carbon stocks of boreal forest ecosystems are likely to increase under global warming16, though whether the taiga as a whole becomes a net source or sink of carbon under warming remains unclear15. Parts of the boreal forest export large quantities of organic matter to riparian zones and fluvial networks, which ultimately reach the Arctic Ocean via surface runoff, riverbank erosion and mass wasting17,18. This drainage includes substantial but unquantified amounts of coarse woody material, known as driftwood19, some of which accumulates in the vast delta systems of large boreal rivers and along Arctic coastlines20,21.Riverbank erosion strongly controls the amount of natural driftwood transported to the Arctic Ocean (Fig. 1A–C). In open ocean conditions, intact stems typically remain buoyant for 1 yr depending on species, but when entrained in sea ice they can be transported for several years before being released19. Timescales for wood to sink to the deep floor of the Arctic Ocean depend on density contrast, ocean depth and currents but are likely significantly shorter than floating time. This natural process is accelerating due to the combined effects of warming-induced permafrost thaw and forest expansion22,23, as well as rapid sea-ice loss and increased river discharge24,25 (Fig. 1D, E).Fig. 1: Arctic amplification and driftwood solution.A natural erosion and tree tipping, as well as (B) driftwood accumulation along the Indigirka river in northeastern Siberia (taken by Ulf Büntgen in July 2016). (C) Underwater logs on the ocean floor of the northwest continental shelf of the Chinese Sea51. D changes in sea-ice concentration >60 and >66° North (red and orange, respectively) expressed as total annual sums of sea-ice cover anomalies52, (E) changes in vapour pressure (warmer and wetter conditions) >60 and >66° North (dark and light blue, respectively) expressed as average hPa anomalies53, and (F) changes in tree-ring width (TRW; light green) and maximum latewood density (MXD; dark green) expressed as mean and median (thin dashed lines) timeseries after ‘signal-free age-dependent spline’ detrending of eight undisturbed boreal forest sites in northern North America and northern Eurasia (https://climexp.knmi.nl and https://www.monostar.org).Full size imageA few very large river systems drain broad sectors of the circumpolar boreal forest and deliver the majority of terrestrial freshwater and dissolved and particulate organic carbon to the Arctic Ocean17,18,25,26. The most important catchments (and their discharge) of the Russian taiga from west to east are those of the Ob (400 km3 yr−1), Yenisey (590 km3 yr−1), Lena (540 km3 yr−1), and Kolyma (70 km3 yr−1), while the Mackenzie in Canada (290 km3 yr−1) and Yukon in Alaska (210 km3 yr−1) drain most of the taiga in northern North America17,26. Collectively they represent an estimated 11% of global freshwater runoff26. While increasing their discharge rates, and hence the amount of driftwood that can reach the Arctic Ocean, recent anthropogenic warming is also affecting the capacity of individual trees and entire forest ecosystems to sequester CO2 from the atmosphere. Total ring width and maximum latewood density values of conifers across the boreal forests of northern North America and Eurasia have been increasing since a period of reduced growth at the end of the 20th century27,28 (Fig. 1F).A key aspect of our thought experiment on using driftwood to sequester atmospheric carbon is the negligible rate of wood decay after sinking (Fig. 1C). Extremely low decay rates under near anoxic and freezing conditions29,30 suggest the deep Arctic Ocean floor would be highly suited for long-term storage. This is supported by measurements of circa 200 living and relict, dry-dead and subfossil trees from different cold, oxic and anoxic environments in the European Alps (e.g., talus, lakes and peat), which revealed no systematic decline in α-cellulose content over the past 8000 years31 (Fig. 2). The centennial to multi-millennial scale stability of wood carbon is further corroborated by decades of worldwide dendrochronological research on dry-dead and subfossil wood samples from historical buildings, archaeological excavations, and sediments spanning Holocene and even Pleistocene contexts32. While the composition and deposition of boreal driftwood should be confirmed, we expect the combination of low temperature, reduced oxygen and limited wood-borer activity to characterise large parts of the Arctic shelf and deep basin33,34,35.Fig. 2: Wood preservation and carbon sequestration.A Alpha-cellulose content in 17 living and circa 183 relict, dry-dead and subfossil larch (Larix decidua Mill.) and pine (Pinus cembra L.) trees from the Austrian and Swiss Alps between 1950 and 2400 m asl, where wood preservation is promoted by near freezing conditions31. Brown horizontal bars show the timespan of the individual wood samples after precise cross-dating (x-axis) and the median α-cellulose content expressed in percentage and calculated from five-year blocks. The dashed line is the mean and suggests that there are no long-term effects of possible wood decay on α-cellulose content in living, dry-dead and subfossil trees over the past 8000 years (6980 BCE to 2015 CE). B Box plots summarise data for each millennium over much of the Holocene. We also measured 26.4% (±7.16) of remaining α-cellulose in a radiocarbon-dead subfossil tree trunk from northern Greenland (not shown).Full size imageConclusion and projectionThough widely discussed (and frequently criticised)36,37,38, planting trees for carbon removal and storage has limited impact beyond their lifespan (captured by the adage “grow fast and die young”)39. Evidence also suggests that afforestation of Arctic tundra is likely to result in net warming due to reduced surface albedo38, negating perceived climate change mitigation benefits of high-latitude tree planting on previously unforested terrain. Instead, we suggest further exploration of the potential of harvesting and rafting large quantities of boreal timber into the Arctic Ocean for CO2 removal and multi-millennial scale storage (Fig. 3). Given access to carbon rich, and economically unimportant boreal conifer trees with short transit routes to large river systems, combined with efficient monocultural reforestation practices, the cold Arctic Ocean could store vast quantities of carbon from Siberia and northern North America where biodiversity is low and the risk of wildfires high40. The burning-induced succession of boreal forests has almost tripled during the first two decades of the 21st century as the biome became warmer 41.Fig. 3: Driftwood carbon storage model with agent-perspective.A Circumpolar boreal forest zone with large river systems, and the extent of burnt boreal forest between 2002 and 2020 that amounts to circa 1,835,00 km² (red areas)42,43. B Least-cost analysis of a boreal forest patch with suitable timber harvesting parameters and optimal driftwood transportation conditions along the closest river to the nearest ocean54. Floating time is calculated as average downstream river run-off velocity and depending on rafting style and wood amount. An ecological buffer zone has been included around the nearest administrative centre from which labour and logistics are directed. The simplified model design includes an agent-perspective55, in which the ability for the exogenous (e.g., harvesting for wood products and wood vaulting, and maintenance for carbon offsetting) and endogenous (e.g., cultural, herding, etc) demand for forest services to be met by spatial production depends on factors such as forest productivity, land ownership, infrastructure, human resources and the decisions of modelled agents, informed by their values, objectives and perceptions of future monetary and non-monetary value of land. C Pictures of natural driftwood erosion, tree tipping and driftwood rafting, as well as Indigenous people at the Indigirka river in northeastern Siberia (all taken by Ulf Büntgen in July 2016).Full size imageTo achieve significant CO2 drawdown, we propose, for the purposes of our thought experiment, three units of circa 10,000 km2 (comparable to the size of Lake Onega in northwestern Russia near the Finnish border) for extensive harvesting and reforestation along each of the five main rivers and their tributaries in Russia, Alaska and Canada: Ob, Yenisey, Lena, Yukon, and Mackenzie. Due to high fire risk (and low human population), these regions carry ~10–30 t/ha of larch, pine or spruce timber for harvesting (at decreasing mass per unit area with increasing latitude). Taking 15 t/ha stand carbon content, annual logging and rafting of circa 180,000 km2 timber could remove up to 1 Gt/y of CO2. The total area of harvesting would represent around 1% of the boreal forest zone, comparable with the area consumed annually by wildfires42,43. All target regions should be even-aged, biodiversity-poor and fire-prone monocultural coniferous stands of low economic and cultural value. If logging is mainly carried out in winter, access may be facilitated by extensive ice roads, clearing can be performed on solid ground, and timber can be placed directly on the frozen rivers. Mulching small branches and other wooden remains can decrease fire risk, increase soil development, and enhance nutrient availability.Natural and silvicultural reforestation is likely to sequester most CO2 during the first few decades of forest regeneration44,45. Such a multi-year, seasonal cycle of harvesting, sinking and replanting will always capture more CO2 than any form of natural taiga succession in which trees grow slower and will either burn or decompose afterwards. Potential removal rates, however, can be expected to vary substantially between biogeographic zones, and boreal forests are less productive (but more durable) than those in warmer climates44,45. It should be further noted that the boreal rivers and their vast delta systems19,20,21, together with large parts of the circumpolar coastlines of northern North America and Eurasia already contain significant amounts of driftwood46.Although our thought experiment should not distract from the priority of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, with continued economic growth undermining efforts to meet the Paris Agreement targets, carbon removal proposals are increasingly relevant47. As with other means for carbon capture and removal, our sylvicultural proposal is not without caveats and requires further interdisciplinary scientific investigation. We recognise significant issues must be evaluated carefully in developing and refining our concept not least concerning land ownership by indigenous peoples, infrastructure and market value, topography, hydrology, accessibility, biodiversity, and productivity of different harvest units in the boreal forest zone, as well as the species-specific sinking potential of driftwood under changing sea-ice conditions, and the locations of its final deposition in more or less anoxic parts of the Arctic Ocean floor. Undesirable environmental impacts that might arise include the release of phenols and other wood chemicals during both controlled and uncontrolled river rafting, and ocean sinking, while large quantities of floating timber may threaten riverine and maritime traffic. Geo-political questions concerning different cost factors and ownership rights of the Arctic Ocean floor would also need to be addressed, including whether seabed driftwood storage should be accounted as part of the terrestrial or marine environment, with implications for carbon sink and source budgeting at national and international scales (and hence carbon credit incentivisation). Rigorous cost-benefit modelling with a comprehensive agent-perspective for environmental and societal impact assessments is also needed (Fig. 3). Such a model must accurately address multi-scalar, cross-cultural and cross-functional/sectoral48 tensions between the norm and value-based institutions of indigenous forest user groups and the market cost and revenue generation processes of the logging and climate mitigation industry49,50. A refined model is expected to define ecologically, economically and politically suitable harvesting practices, logging terrains and shipping routes (Fig. 3).While logging at a desirable scale could hypothetically be achieved by Russia alone, we imagine a coordinated circumpolar effort that complements other mitigation strategies. Following scientific and indigenous guidance, the incentive for Moscow, Ottawa and Washington to start considering a viable concept of using driftwood to sequester atmospheric carbon could be twofold: Reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the effects of anthropogenic climate and environmental change, in tandem with fiscal profit from carbon credit points, and international reputation for sustainable nature-based geoengineering.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThis study was supported by the AdAgriF project: “Advanced methods of greenhouse gases emission reduction and sequestration in agriculture and forest landscape for climate change mitigation” (CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004635), the ERC Advanced Grant (882727; Monostar), and the ERC Synergy Grant (101118880; Synergy-Plague). We are thankful to colleagues in Brno, Cambridge and Mainz for stimulating discussions.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UKUlf Büntgen, Clive Oppenheimer, Michael Kempf, Tito Arosio & Tatiana BebchukGlobal Change Research Institute (CzechGlobe), Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech RepublicUlf Büntgen, Mirek Trnka, Ian Holman & Jan EsperDepartment of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech RepublicUlf BüntgenDepartment of Agrosystems and Bioclimatology, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University, Brno, Czech RepublicMirek TrnkaQuaternary Geology, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, SwitzerlandMichael KempfCranfield University, Bedfordshire, UKIan HolmanForest Dynamics, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, SwitzerlandTito ArosioDepartment of Geography, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, GermanyJan EsperAuthorsUlf BüntgenView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarClive OppenheimerView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMirek TrnkaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMichael KempfView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarIan HolmanView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTito ArosioView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTatiana BebchukView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarJan EsperView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsU.B. and J.E. initiated and conceived the study. U.B. wrote the manuscript together with C.O., M.T., I.H. and J.E., whereas M.K. was responsible for the model aspect of the study. T.A. provided cellulose data and T.B. contributed to discussion and revision.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
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AbstractThe application of appropriate fertilizer sources and the optimization of nitrogen management are key strategies for increasing crop yield and nutrient use efficiency. An on-farm experiment was conducted in five districts of the North Shewa Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia, to evaluate three phosphorus sources (NPS, DAP, and TSP) and nitrogen application times (100% and 75% of the recommended rate, with split applications) for wheat and tef production. The experiments for bread wheat were conducted on contrasting soil types (Cambisols, heavy Vertisols, and light Vertisols), whereas the experiments for tef were conducted on heavy Vertisols. A randomized complete block design was used, with a farm considered a replication (only a single replication with all treatments was planted at a farm). Data on growth and yield were analyzed using R software version 4.3. All phosphorus sources significantly increased yields compared to the control, with wheat yields increasing from 1,898 to 4,640-5,360 kg ha-1 and tef from 1,376 to 2,382-2,591 kg ha-1. Notably, the 75% N rate with split application improved the agronomic efficiency of nitrogen (AEN) by 38.8% and the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) by 19.5% compared with the previously recommended two-split applications, suggesting a cost-effective and efficient N management approach. Farmer preferences, assessed via Likert scales, aligned with the observed biological yield trends. These findings suggest that NPS, DAP, and TSP perform similarly from an agronomic perspective, and fertilizer choice can be guided by local availability and cost. Reduced, split nitrogen applications offer a cost-effective way to improve wheat and tef productivity and nutrient use efficiency, supporting sustainable fertilizer management.

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The data sets used during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors acknowledge the staff of the soil and water management department at Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center for their invaluable support in input provision, data collection, and field assistance.FundingThis work was supported by the OCP Ethiopia Fertilizer Manufacturing PLC (OCPEFM PLC) (no grant number).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsAmhara Agricultural Research Institute, Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 112, Debre Birhan, EthiopiaYalemegena Gete, Beza Shewangizaw, Kenzemed Kassie, Shawl Assefa, Getaneh Shegaw, Lisanu Getaneh, Dejene Mamo, Getachew Lema & Genet TayeAmhara Agricultural Research Institute, Adet Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 08, Bahir Dar, EthiopiaTadele AmareAmhara Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 527, Bahir Dar, EthiopiaTesfaye FeyisaAuthorsYalemegena GeteView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBeza ShewangizawView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarKenzemed KassieView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarShawl AssefaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTadele AmareView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTesfaye FeyisaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarGetaneh ShegawView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLisanu GetanehView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarDejene MamoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarGetachew LemaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarGenet TayeView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsY.G.: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. B.S., K.K., S.A., T.A., T.F., G.S., L.G., D.M., G.L., and G.T: Investigation, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review and editing.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Yalemegena Gete.Ethics declarations

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This experiment was performed in accordance with the Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center and Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute review protocol. Based on this annual review, it has permission to do the experiment on the farms. The study involved on-farm fertilizer trials with volunteer farmers in North Shewa, Ethiopia. All participants gave informed consent for participation and for publication of photographs, and no personal or identifiable information was collected or disclosed.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleGete, Y., Shewangizaw, B., Kassie, K. et al. Evaluation of phosphorus fertilizer sources and nitrogen optimization for wheat and tef in Ethiopia’s central highlands.
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AbstractDrought indicators are essential for agricultural sustainability. This research employs causal inference and information theory to identify the most representative drought indicator (index or variable) for agricultural productivity. The causal connection between precipitation, maximum air temperature, drought indices and corn and soybean yield are ascertained by cross convergent mapping (CCM), while the information transfer between them is determined through transfer entropy (TE). This research is conducted on rainfed agricultural lands in Iowa, considering the phenological stages of crops. The results uncover both the causal connection between corn yield and precipitation and maximum temperature indices. Based on the analysis, the drought indices with the strongest causal relationship to crop production are SPEI-9 m and SPI-6 m during the silking period, and SPI-9 m and SPI-6 m during the doughing period. Therefore, these indices may be considered as the most effective predictors in crop yield prediction models. The study highlights the need to consider phenological periods when estimating crop production, as the causal relationship between corn yield and drought indices differs for the two phenological periods.

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Data availability

Crop phenology data were extracted from here (USDA-NASS): (https://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/Crop_Progress_&_Condition/index.php). Land Cover Data: (https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/lgrip30v001). gridMET Drought Indices (EDDI, scPDSI, SPEI, SPI): (https://www.climatologylab.org/gridmet.html). DAYMET Meteorological (Precipitation and T max ) Data: (https://daymet.ornl.gov).
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Serhan Yeşilköy.Ethics declarations

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleYeşilköy, S., Baydaroğlu, Ö. & Demir, I. Linking drought indicators and crop yields through causality and information transfer: a phenology-based analysis.
Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32185-6Download citationReceived: 11 August 2025Accepted: 09 December 2025Published: 03 January 2026DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32185-6Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsDroughtCrop yieldCausalityPhenologyCross convergent mappingTransfer entropyIowa More