Philippa Kaur

Material characterization resultsTo investigate the structural composition of NMC-2, XRD analysis plots were performed. Figure 1a shows the XRD pattern of the NMC-2 composite before adsorption. The XRD pattern shows the corresponding strong and narrow peaks, from which it can be seen that the peaks of broad diffraction NMC-2 can correspond to the standard cards of Fe, C, Fe7C3, Fe2C, and FeC, indicating that the synthesized adsorbent is an iron-carbon composite. It can be indicated that mesoporous nitrogen-doped composites were formed during the carbonization process. During the experiments, it was found that the materials are magnetic, probably because of the presence of Fe, FeC, Fe7C3, Fe2C. Due to the magnetic properties of this type of material, rapid separation and recovery can be obtained under the conditions of an applied magnetic field, which allows easy separation of the adsorbent and metal ions from the wastewater15.Figure 1XRD and nitrogen adsorption and desorption tests on materials: (a) XRD pattern of NMC-2 adsorbent before adsorption, (b) pore size distribution of NMC-2, (c) nitrogen adsorption–desorption curve of NMC-2 adsorbent.Full size imageFrom the adsorption–desorption curves of adsorbent N2 in Fig. 1b, it can be seen that the NMC-2 isotherm belongs to the class IV curve, and the appearance of H3-type hysteresis loops is observed at the medium pressure end, and H3 is commonly found in aggregates with laminar structure, producing slit mesoporous or macroporous materials, which indicates that N2 condenses and accumulates in the pore channels, and these phenomena prove that NMC-2 is a porous material16. Figure 1c shows the pore size distribution of the adsorbent NMC-2 obtained according to the BJH calculation method, from which it can be seen that the pore size distribution is not uniform in the range, and most of them are concentrated below 20 nm, while according to Table 1, the specific surface area of the original sample of Fenton sludge and fly ash is 124.08 m2/g and 3.79 m2/g, respectively, and the specific surface area of NMC-2 is 228.65 m2/g. The Fenton The pore volume of the original samples of Fenton sludge and fly ash were 0.18 cm3/g and 0.006 cm3/g respectively, while the pore volume of NMC-2 was 0.24 cm3/g. The pore diameters of the original sample of Fenton sludge and fly ash were 5.72 nm and 6.70 nm respectively, while the pore diameter of NMC-2 was 4.22 nm. The above data indicated that the synthetic materials have increased the specific surface area and pore volume compared with the original samples, indicating that the doping of nitrogen can increase the specific surface area of the material. Since the pore size of mesoporous materials is 2–50 nm, NMC-2 is a porous material with main mesopores. Thanks to the large specific surface area provided by the mesopores, the material has a large number of active sites, and in addition, the mesopores can store more Cr(VI)16, which contributes to efficient removal.Table 1 Total pore-specific surface area, pore volume, and pore size of BJH adsorption and accumulation of Fenton sludge, fly ash and NMC-2.Full size tableThe morphological analysis of the material surface using SEM can see the surface structure and the pore structure of NMC-2. And Fig. 2a–d shows the swept electron microscope image of NMC-2. Figure 2a shows that the surface of the material is not smooth, and there are more lint-like fiber structures. The fibers in Fig. 2b are loosely and irregularly arranged, which may be due to the irregular morphology caused by the small particles of the NMC-2 sample. As shown in Fig. 2c and Fig. 2a there are more pores generated on the surface of NMC-2, which may be due to the addition of K2CO3 to urea and, Fenton sludge solution to generate CO217.Figure 2SEM, TEM and EDS testing of materials: (a–d) SEM image of NMC-2 adsorbent, (e) TEM image of NMC-2; (g–i) TEM-EDS spectrum of NMC-2, (j) TEM-EDS spectra of NMC-2 obtained from.Full size imageThese pores can provide many active sites, which is consistent with the results derived in Fig. 1, where NMC-2 is a mesoporous-dominated porous material, and also demonstrates that the addition of urea can provide a nitrogen source for the material, providing abundant active sites. Figure 2j depicts the TEM of NMC-2. the TEM images show that the synthesized NMC-2 has a folded structure with a surface covered by a carbon film, and the HRTEM (Fig. 2e) also confirms this result with a lattice spacing of 0.13, 0.15, 0.20, 0.23, 0.24, and 0.25 nm, corresponding to the (4 5 2) and (1 0 2) of C, the (2 0 1) of FeC) surface, the (2 1 0) surface of Fe7C3, the (5 3 1) surface of Fe2C, and the (2 0 1) surface of FeC, which also confirms the synthesis of the above substances. The corresponding EDS spectra of the dark field diagram NMC-2 were obtained from Fig. 2j, and the EDS spectra proved the presence of various elements: carbon (C) (Fig. 2f) from fly ash, iron (Fe) (Fig. 2g) from Fenton sludge, nitrogen (N) (Fig. 2h) from urea, and the presence of (O) (Fig. 2i), further confirming the successful preparation of NMC-2.The type of functional groups and chemical bonding on the surface of the material can be analyzed by IR spectrogram analysis. Figure 3b shows the FTIR image of NMC-2 adsorbent 3440 cm−1 wide and strong absorption peak is due to the stretching vibration of –OH, there is a large amount of –OH present on the surface of the material; the peak appearing at 1640 cm−1 is –COOH. Characterization reveals that the –OH absorption peak is wider18,19. In addition, the absorptions at 1390 cm−1 and 1000 cm−1 were attributed to the bending of –OH vibrations of alcohols and phenol and the stretching vibration of C–O20. The above results indicate that the surface of NMC-2 contains a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups, and these functional groups can provide many active sites for the removal of Cr(VI). It was also found that the weak peaks corresponding to 573 cm−1 and 550 cm−1 were attributed to Fe–O groups21. The stretching of Fe–O may be due to the oxidation of loaded Fe0 and Fe2+ to Fe3+22. Figure 3a shows the Fenton sludge and fly ash FTIR images. It can be seen from the figure that the surfaces of Fenton sludge and fly ash contain a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups, the surface functional groups of the two raw materials are more abundant, and the functional groups of NMC-2 around 3441 cm−1, 1632 cm−1, and 1400 cm−1 are not significantly different from those of the raw materials, and the C–H stretching vibration peaks of NMC-2 around 873 cm−1 and 698 cm−1 is not obvious, which may be because the material the C–H bond on the surface of the raw material was oxidized to C–O in the process of synthesis.Figure 3FTIR testing of materials: (a) FTIR image of Fenton sludge, fly ash, (b) Ftir image of NMC-2 adsorbent.Full size imageCr(VI) adsorption experimentSelection of adsorbentTo select the best adsorbent, Cr(VI) adsorption tests were performed on four adsorbents. Figure 4a shows the effect of Fenton sludge and the urea addition on the adsorption efficiency. The Cr(VI) removal rates of the four adsorbents were ranked from low to high: MC-1  More

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In a previous study18, we used bioinformatics tools to analyze the metagenome and the amplicon 16S sequences to gain an insight into microbial diversity in Moroccan lagoons, namely Marchica and Oualidia. 16S rRNA gene classification revealed a high percentage of bacteria in both lagoons. On average, bacteria accounted for 90% of the total prokaryotes in Marchica and ~ 70% in Oualidia. The five phyla that were the most abundant in both lagoons, Marchica and Oualidia, respectively, were Proteobacteria (53.62%, 29.18%), Bacteroidetes (16.46%, 43.49%), Cyanobacteria (0.53%, 34.35%), Verrucomicrobia (1.75%, 15.82%), and Actinobacteria (7.42%, 13.98%). At the genus level, we found that the highest assigned hits were attributed to Synechococcus, which was highly abundant in Marchica (32%) compared to Oualidia (0.07%) in 2014. This amount dropped to 22% in Marchica and 0.04% in Oualidia in 2015. Hence, in this study we performed the analysis of the Synechococcus genus community using oligotyping to investigate their dynamics and understand their co-occurrence and covariation in space and time within fragile ecosystems such as lagoons.We may divide our results into two emerging Synechococcus communities: one dominated in 2014 and the other was less present in 2015, each composed of different cooccurring Synechococcus oligotypes. The abundant Synechococcus community in Marchica in 2014 consisted of clades I, 5.3, III, IV, and VII. These clades are typically found in either warmer or more oligotrophic environments19,20. This result is in accordance with Marchica’s environmental characteristics; it is an oligotrophic ecosystem with high primary production and warmer water in summer21. The community included clades CB5 and WPC1 in Marchica 2014 and 2015 when the number of Synechococcus reads was lower. Strains belonging to the CB5 clade lack phycourobilin (PUB), contain one motile strain22,23, are present in temperate coastal waters and are prevalent in polar/subpolar waters24,25,26. WPC1 strains are observed in open-ocean and near-shore waters1,24,27. Clades IV and I usually co-occur and are more prevalent in cold coastal waters19,28,29,30. Interestingly, Clade III was prominent in Marchica. This clade is known to be motile and restricted to warm, oligotrophic water19,20,30. Although at a smaller read number, clade III was also observed in Oualidia, where the temperature is cooler compared to Marchica. Furthermore, we found that clade III growth has been shown to be severely affected at low temperatures30. Moreover, representatives of both clades I and IV were present in Oualidia in both the summers of 2014 and 2015. Some Synechococcus strains, which are known to prefer cooler water temperatures and salinities, were in higher relative abundance in the waters of Marchica. This result agrees with a previous study showing that Synechococcus isolates of clades I and IV exhibited temperature preferences31. Their growth rates were marginally lower at low temperatures in strains from clades I and IV, which were dominant in temperate regions.Nitrate levels are typically low or undetectable in these lagoons, which allows the persistence of clades that would not typically thrive in coastal waters at other times of the year. In 2014, the nitrate concentration was higher than the average of 10 mg/l, which could be due to increased agricultural activities and wastewater treatment plant effluent21. The decreasing nitrate concentration in Marchica in 2015 could be explained by the newly installed inlet in 2010, which was designed to improve water exchange with the open sea and reduce the amount of suspended matter21. Temperature and salinity have a large effect on nitrate in marine ecosystems32; the highest nitrate degradation rates were observed at 35 °C and at increasing salinity rates. Therefore, we expected to see correlations between salinity, temperature and nitrate concentrations. Interestingly, clades CB5 in Marchica and IV in Oualidia increased in relative abundance in summer 2015 compared to 2014, when the nitrate concentration decreased. Moreover, the Synechococcus microbial community diversity and density are variables depending on the variations in the physical and chemical parameters. These parameters are strongly influenced by the marine waters passing through the artificial inlets, which have an impact on the internal hydrodynamics of both lagoons and hence the distribution and co-occurrence of Synechococcus strains. In addition, anthropogenic activities also have a great influence on Synechococcales population growth and interactions with their viruses33,34.This study revealed some differences between Marchica and Oualidia in identified Synechococcus clades. The Marchica lagoon showed more heterogeneity (clades I, II, III, IV, VII, VIII, 5.3, WPC1, CB5, and IX) than the Oualidia lagoon, where fewer clades were identified (I, III, IV, and VII). There was a clear variation in the pattern of correlation between oligotypes of the same or different clades for both the 2014 and 2015 samplings. Furthermore, we observed complex patterns of co-occurrence among oligotypes; in 2014 (clades I, III, IV, 5.3, VII), and in 2015, we found clades CB5 and WPC1. In Oualidia, values decreased in comparison to Marchica in both 2014 and 2015 summer samplings, following a pattern of co-occurrence, especially for both clades I and IV in both sampling years. Many studies have shown that the relative proportions of cooccurring Synechococcus populations to each other at the clade and subclade levels vary in space and time based on environmental factors such as seasonal temperature fluctuations, nutrient availability and upwelling, circulation patterns, and abundance of other phytoplankton8.We presume that the greater variability in oligotype co-occurrence behavior observed in Marchica Lagoon, especially in the summer of 2014, could be due to the higher abundance and diversity of Synechococcus oligotypes, physico-chemical parameter fluctuations or rehabilitation of the lagoon.Less abundant oligotypes could also be considered potential bioindicators of Synechococcus genetic diversity. Their seasonal occurrence might contribute to changing ecological and biogeochemical characteristics of the marine environment35. The Synechococcus relative abundance count revealed that the Marchica Synechococcus community included the least abundant oligotypes in 2015. For instance, O7 and O8 were detected in 2014 and were absent in 2015 (Table 1). It is unclear which factors served to constrain the relative abundances of these least present oligotypes, but temperature and salinity could have an impact on their distribution in Marchica (Fig. 4) and the opposite for Oualidia, which are cooler-temperature adapted ones. We noticed that the relative abundance of cooccurring Synechococcus was not constant. For instance, oligotype 4 belonging to Clade IV showed higher values in summer 2014 (974 reads) in Marchica compared to summer 2015 (319 reads), and the opposite was observed in Oualidia, with a lower abundance compared to Marchica. Increased values of cooccurring clade I oligotypes (14, 26, and 6) were detected in the summer of 2014 in both lagoons.Figure 4Principle component analysis of Synechococcus oligotype relative abundance. The plot is generated using the relative abundance of each oligotype, T temperature, S Salinity, and NO3− Nitrate. Each point represents an oligotype. Colors represent the year of sampling; red for 2014 and blue for 2015. The shape of point indicates the sampling site; rounded points refer to Marchica lagoon, and triangles refer to Oualidia. Circles represent the normal distribution of oligotypes; the red circle refers to 2014, and the blue one refers to 2015.Full size imageIn comparing our results with a study from Little Sippewissett Marsh (LSM)8 that used oligotyping to investigate the distribution of the genus Synechococcus in space and time sequencing the V4-V6 hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA gene, we found 31 oligotypes, while they identified 12. In both studies, the proportion of Synechococcus oligotypes increased in summer and in coastal waters compared to estuaries. In addition, Clades I and IV were more abundant in saline conditions, such as Marchica Lagoon. However, these clades were found in greater relative abundances at cold temperatures, in contrast to our study, where they were identified in Marchica’s warm waters. Moreover, clade CB5 tended to be prominent at relatively warm temperatures (17–20 °C)6. In our work, it was not prevalent either in cooler or warmer water. Notably, the relative abundance of rare oligotypes was higher in warm hypersaline estuary waters8,18, while in our case study, they occurred in cooler moderately saline Oualidia waters.The dominance of a certain clade could have many different ecological ramifications, especially as the clades can be incredibly diverse in their growth, loss, nutrient utilization and other attributes. The dominant clade’s growth and loss patterns will set the stage for the population dynamics. For instance, if the dominant clade only blooms in a given environmental factor such as temperature, light, or salinity, it will then affect the timing of blooms, and follow-on the effects of subsequent grazing, lysis or even biogeochemical cycling. Even if the population is diverse, the dynamics as a whole will be a composite response of each individual clade’s ecophysiology, making it important to understand their composition and how it changes over space and time.While the rpoC1 gene is a higher resolution diversity marker36, 16S amplicon data can be used for exploring the entire bacterial assemblage including Synechococcus clade designations via oligotyping35. The latter has a great advantage in answering unexplained diversity contained in taxa using 16S rRNA gene sequences. Nevertheless, it has some limitations, as it acts optimally only when performed on taxa that are closely related. Regarding distantly related taxa, the high number of increased-entropy locations makes the supervision steps difficult. In addition, although oligotyping does not rely on clustering conditions or availability of existing reads within reference databases, it demands preliminary operational taxonomic unit clustering to find closely related species appropriate for the analysis. This method is under continuous improvement to better exploit the information within subtle variations in 16S rRNA gene sequences5.In conclusion, we explored the patterns of Synechococcus diversity in space and time using an oligotyping approach to examine these populations in lagoon waters of Mediterranean Marchica and Atlantic Oualidia, in Morocco. Patterns that have been observed at the clade and subclade levels, such as Synechococcus, relative abundance and the co-occurrence of groups from different clades, were shown to occur among oligotypes. The Marchica Lagoon showed a heterogeneous Synechococcus diversity compared to Oualidia in summer 2014. Thirty-one Synechococcus oligotypes were identified. Two distinct communities emerged in the 2014 and 2015 summer samplings, abundant and rare Synechococcus species, each comprising cooccurring Synechococcus oligotypes from different clades. Network analysis showed that six oligotypes were exclusive to Marchica Lagoon. The identified clades I, III, IV, VII, and 5.3 in Marchica were in accordance with its environmental characteristics. In addition, the relative abundance of some cooccurring Synechococcus strains was not constant over time and space (e.g., clades I and IV). Using gene oligotyping, we illustrated some of the challenges associated with the identification of novel Synechococcus strains or studied their co-occurrence in space and time. Oligotyping has been instrumental in discriminating closely related Synechococcus strains. However, this study leaves open questions about how samples differ by location and whether locations differ from year to year. Do cooccurring oligotypes interact with each other and to what extent do they correlate with physicochemical parameters? What triggers the coexistence of clades I and IV with clade III in warm water or 5.3 with VII, which do not know much about. Finally, how do relative abundances change over seasons. Hence, future work needs to consider additional stations and seasons to provide better statistical support for our findings and to better understand their correlation with physical and chemical environmental parameters. Other factors were not considered in this study, such as nutrient availability, chlorophyll, irradiance, viral lysis, and greater sequencing depth, which could also influence the observed seasonal dynamics. More

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