Philippa Kaur

Sample collection and postmortem evaluationBald eagle carcasses, and/or oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected in the field and submitted to the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study Research and Diagnostic Service. In some cases, live bald eagles were found moribund and transported to wildlife rehabilitation clinics and either died in transit or soon after arrival. Carcasses underwent postmortem evaluation, including gross and histopathology. Tissue samples [heart, brain, kidney, spleen, lung, adrenal gland, pancreas, liver, small and large intestine, and cloacal bursa (if present)] were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and routinely processed for histopathology23 at the Athens Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory. Histopathology was assessed by a board-certified veterinary pathologist.Additional bald eagle and waterfowl species mortality dataData on wild bird deaths attributed to highly pathogenic influenza A viruses were retrieved from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service website, at: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-2022/2022-hpai-wild-birds. These data are publicly available and include state, county, date detected, and species of individual birds that tested positive for HP IAV.ImmunohistochemistryImmunohistochemistry (IHC) for avian influenza virus was performed in select cases on brain, pancreas, spleen, liver, and/or adrenal gland at the Athens Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory. IHC was performed on an automated stainer (Nemesis 3600, Biocare Medical). Polyclonal antiserum against influenza A virus was used as the primary antibody (ab155877, Abcam), diluted 1:3000, and incubated for 60 min at 37 °C with agent-positive control. Antigen retrieval was with Target Retrieval Solution (S2367, Dako) pH (10x) at 110 °C for 15 min. Enzyme blockage was via 3% H2O2 for 20 min (H324-500, Fisher Scientific); protein blockage was with Universal Blocking Reagent (10x) Power Block diluted at 1:10 for 5 min (HK085-5 K, BioGenex); link was by biotinylated rabbit anti-goat (BA-5000, Vector) at a 1:100 dilution for 10 min with 4 + streptavidin alkaline phosphatase label for 10 min (AP605H, BioCare Medical). Staining was with warp red chromogen kit for 5 min (WR8065, BioCare Medical). Known influenza A-virus positive control tissues were tested alongside each case.Polymerase chain reactionOropharyngeal and cloacal swabs from bald eagle carcasses were pooled for each individual eagle and tested by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Briefly, swabs samples were extracted with the KingFisher magnetic particle processer using the MagMAX-96 AI/ND Viral RNA isolation Kit (Ambion/Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) following a modified MagMAX-S protocol24. Resultant nucleic acids were screened against primers specific for H5 IAV in rRT-PCR; samples that yielded a cycle threshold value  More

Systematic paleontologySauropterygia Owen, 186038.Eosauropterygia Rieppel, 199439.Pachypleurosauroidea Huene, 195640.Pachypleurosauridae Nopcsa, 192841.Luopingosaurus imparilis gen. et sp. nov.EtymologyThe genus name refers to the Luoping County, at which the fossil site is located. Species epithet imparilis (Latin) means peculiar and unusual.HolotypeA ventrally exposed skeleton with a posterior part of the caudal missing, IVPP V19049.Locality and horizonLuoping, Yunnan, China; Second (Upper) Member of Guanling Formation, Pelsonian (~ 244 Ma), Anisian, Middle Triassic37.DiagnosisA pachypleurosaurid distinguishable from other members of this family by the following combination of features (those unique among pachypleurosaurids identified with an asterisk): snout (preorbital portion) long and anteriorly pointed, 55.0% of skull length (*); orbital length about one quarter of skull length; internal naris retracted, without contribution from premaxilla; nasal ending at level of anterior margin of prefrontal; dentary length 71.7% of mandibular length; hyoid length 9.7% of mandibular length; presence of entepicondylar foramen in humerus; 21 cervical and 27 dorsal vertebrae (*); distinct expansions of distal heads of posterior two sacral ribs; six pairs of caudal ribs; phalangeal formula 2–3-5–5-3 for manus and 2–3-4–6-4 for pes (*); Metatarsal I short and stout with expanded proximal end, 56.4% of Metatarsal V in length (*); and Metatarsal IV being longest phalange in pes.Comparative descriptionThe holotype and only currently known specimen of Luopingosaurus has a preserved length of 46.2 cm from the rostral tip to the 30th caudal vertebra (for measurements, see Table 1). The estimated total length of the body may have reached 64 cm, assuming similar tail proportions of pachypleurosaurids. As such, Luopingosaurus is longer than most of other pachypleurosauroids that are small-sized with a maximum total length rarely exceeding 50 cm4,9,10,11,12,14,15,16,18,23,25, although some pachypleurosaurids are notably larger (e.g., 88 cm in Diandongosaurus cf. acutidentatus22, ~ 120 cm in Neusticosaurus edwardsii8, and ~ 130 cm in Wumengosaurus delicatomandibularis13).Table 1 Measurements (in mm) of the holotype (IVPP V19049) of Luopingosaurus imparilis gen. et sp. nov. R, right.Full size tableThe pre-orbital portion, distinctly longer than the postorbital region, measures 55% of the total skull length (the premaxillary symphysis to the occipital condyle) and 51% of the mandibular length. The paired premaxillae form most of the snout anterior to the naris with a pointed anterior tip, similar to the conditions in Wumengosaurus13,30 and Honghesaurus23. By contrast, other pachypleurosauroids uniformly have a blunt rostrum4,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,14,15,16,18,22,25. The premaxilla bears a long posteromedial process inserting between the anterior parts of the elongate nasals (Fig. 3). The premaxillary teeth are homodont with a tall peduncle and a short, conical crown, but the tooth number is hard to estimate because of occlusion of jaws. The posterior parts of nasals contact each other medially, and posteriorly, they contact the frontals in an interdigitating suture at the level of the anterior margin of the prefrontal. In Honghesaurus23, Wumengosaurus30, Neusticosaurus8 and Serpianosaurus9, the even longer nasal extends posteriorly beyond this level and ends at the anterior portion of the orbit.Figure 3Skull and mandible of Luopingosaurus imparilis gen. et sp. nov., IVPP V19049. Head before (a) and after (b) dusted with ammonium chloride. (c), Line- drawing. (d, e), two computed laminography scanning slices. (f), reconstruction in ventral view. ac, acetabulum; an, angular; ar, articular; ax, axis; c, cervical vertebra; den, dentary; eo, exoccipital; f, frontal; hy, hyoid; in, internal naris; j, jugal; m, maxilla; n, nasal; p, parietal; par, prearticular; pof, postfrontal; prf, prefrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; qj, quadratojugal; sa, surangular; sp, splenial; sq, squamosal; stf, supratemporal fossa; v, vomer.Full size imageThe orbit is oval and large, measuring 24.8% of the skull length (Fig. 3). The lateral margin of the frontal contacts the prefrontal anteriorly and the postfrontal posteriorly, and defines most of the medial border of the orbit. The L-shaped jugal, together with the posterolateral process of the maxilla, forms the lateral border of the orbit. No distinct lacrimal is discernable; the bone is probably absent as in other sauropterygians. The postfrontal contacts the dorsal process of the triradiate postorbital ventrally, and both bones define the posterior border of the orbit. Additionally, the posterior process of the postorbital contacts the anterior process of the squamosal, forming the bar between the supratemporal fossa and the ventrally open infratemporal fenestra. The jugal extends beyond the ventral margin of the postorbital and also contacts the anterior process of the squamosal, resembling the conditions in Wumengosaurus30, Honghesaurus23 and Diandongosaurus15. This contact is absent in other pachypleurosauroids4,6,7,8,9,10,11,12.A pair of vomers and pterygoids and a right palatine are discernable in the palate (Fig. 3a–c). The vomer is elongate and slender, extending anteriorly well beyond the nasal. The internal naris, partly covered by the detached splenial, is longitudinally retracted, corresponding to a retracted external naris (Fig. 3d–f). The medial margin of the naris is defined by the nasal, without contribution from the premaxilla. A retracted naris is otherwise present in Wumengosaurus13,30, Qianxisaurus16 and Honghesaurus23. Similar to the condition in Honghesaurus23, the retracted naris of Luopingosaurus is relatively short, having a longitudinal diameter distinctly less than half of the longitudinal diameter of the orbit. By contrast, other pachypleurosauroids4,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,25 generally have an oval-shaped naris. The elongate palatine has a slightly convex medial margin suturing with the pterygoid. Because of the coverage of the detached splenial, the lateral portion of the palatine is unexposed, and it is hard to know whether an ectopterygoid is present or not. The pterygoid is the largest and longest element of the palate, measuring 55.2% of the mandibular length. It has an anterior projection that contacts the vomer anteromedially, and does not participate in the margin of the internal naris. At the level of the posterior orbital margin, the pterygoid has a triangular lateral extension, which was termed as the ectopterygoid process of the pterygoid in Neusticosaurus8. The pterygoid extends back to the occipital condyle, and covers the basicranium and parietals in ventral view. Additionally, the bone has a broad posterolateral process that is set off from the palatal surface by a distinct ridge, resembling the conditions in Serpianosaurus9 and Neusticosaurus8. Posteriorly, the basioccipital is exposed in ventral view, showing the area for attachment to the right exoccipital.The left quadrate is exposed in lateral view with its dorsal process extending underneath the base of the descending process of the squamosal. The posterior margin of the quadrate is excavated, as in many other pachypleurosaurids (e.g., Serpianosaurus9 and Honghesaurus23). The quadratojugal is narrow and splint-like, flanking the anterior margin of the quadrate. A pair of hyoids are ossified. They are rod-like, slightly expanded at both ends. The dentary is wedge-shaped, being 71.7% of the mandibular length. Laterally, it bears a longitudinal series of pores and grooves parallel to the oral margin of the bone (Fig. 3a). The elongate angular tapers at both ends, contacting the dentary anterodorsally and the surangular dorsally in ventral view. The surangular, slightly shorter than the angular, contacts the articular posterodorsally, with a pointed anterior tip wedging into the notched posterior margin of the dentary. The retroarticular process of the articular is very short with a rounded posterior margin. Medially, the splenial and prearticular form most of the inner wall of the mandible. The splenial tapers at both ends and enters the mandibular symphysis anteriorly, having a length similar to the dentary. The relatively slender prearticular contacts the splenial anterodorsally, extends posteriorly and abuts the articular dorsally, measuring 41.1% of the mandibular length.The whole series of 21 cervical vertebrae (including the atlas-axis complex) is well exposed ventrally. The atlas centrum is oval, much smaller than the axis centrum (Fig. 3c). From the axis, the cervical vertebrae increase gradually in size toward the trunk vertebrae posteriorly. The bicephalous cervical ribs have typical free anterior and posterior processes as in other pachypleurosauroids8,9. The trunk is relatively long, including 27 dorsal vertebrae. The posterior dorsal ribs show certain pachyostosis (Fig. S1). Each gastralium consists of five elements (a short and more massive median element and two slender rods in line towards each side; Figs. 3, 4a, b, S1), similar to the conditions in most of other pachypleurosauroids9,11,18,25 (except Neusticosaurus8). Three sacral ribs are clearly revealed by X-ray computed microtomography (Fig. 4c–f). They are relatively short and stout, with the posterior twos bearing a distinct expansion on their distal heads. The distal expansion of the sacral rib is also present in Keichousaurus11, Prosantosaurus25, Qianxisaurus16 and Wumengosaurus13, but it is not pronounced in other pachypleurosauroids4,6,7,8,9,10. The caudal ribs are relatively few, six pairs in number. Additionally, several chevron bones are visible in the proximal caudal region, and they are gradually reduced in length posteriorly (Fig. 4d).Figure 4Girdles, limbs and vertebrae of Luopingosaurus imparilis gen. et sp. nov., IVPP V19049. Photo (a) and line-drawing (b) of pectoral girdle, forelimbs and anterior dorsal vertebrae. Photo (c), line-drawing (d) and two computed laminography scanning slices (e, f) of pelvic girdle, hind limbs and posterior vertebrae. as, astragalus; ca, caudal vertebra; cal, calcaneum; car, caudal rib; co, coracoid; d, dorsal vertebra; dltp, deltopectoral crest; enf, entepicondylar foramen; fe, femur; fi, fibula; h, humerus; il, ilium; int, intermedium; is, ischium; mc, metacarpal; mt, metatarsal; pu, pubis; s, sacral vertebra; sc, scapula; sr, sacral rib; ti, tibia; ul, ulna; uln, ulnare.Full size imageThe paired clavicles and the median interclavicle form a transverse bar at the 20th cervical vertebrae (Fig. 4a, b). The blade-like clavicle tapers posterolaterally with its distal projection overlapped by the scapula in ventral view. The left clavicle contacts the right one anterodorsally to the interclavicle. The interclavicle tapers laterally to a point at each end. The anterior margin of the interclavicle is convex and its posterior margin is slightly concave without a midline projection (contra the condition in Anarosaurus42). The scapula consists of a broad ventral portion and a relatively narrow and elongate dorsal wing that varies little through its length. The coracoid is hourglass-shaped with a slightly concave posterolateral margin and a conspicuously concave anteromedial margin. The medial margin is straight, along which the coracoids would articulate each other in the midline. The humerus is constricted at the middle portion with a nearly straight preaxial margin and a concave postaxial margin. A slit in the expanded distal portion of this bone indicates the possible presence of an entepicondylar foramen (Fig. 4a, b). The radius, slightly longer than the ulna, is more expanded proximally than distally. The ulna is straight with a slightly constricted shaft. In each forelimb, there is two nearly rounded carpals, ulnare and intermedium; the former is half the width of the latter. Five metacarpals are rod-like, slightly expanded at both ends. Among them, Metacarpal I is the shortest, 48% of the length of Metacarpal II. Metacarpal III is slightly shorter than Metacarpal IV, which is the longest. Metacarpal V is 71% of the length of Metacarpal IV. The phalangeal formula is 2–3–5–5–3 for the manus, indicating presence of hyperphalangy in Luopingosaurus (see Discussion below).In the pelvic girdle, the ilia, pubes and ischia are well exposed (Fig. 4c–f). The ilium is nearly triangular with a relatively long and tapering posterior process. The plate-like pubis is well constricted at its middle portion, with the medial portion nearly equal to the lateral portion. The obturator foramen is slit-like, located at the posterolateral corner of this bone (Fig. 4e). The ischium is also plate-like, having a relatively narrow lateral portion and an expanded medial portion that is notably longer than the medial portion of the pubis. The posterolateral ischial margin is highly concave. The posterior pubic margin and anterior ischial margin are moderately concave, and both together would enclose the thyroid fenestra. The femur is slightly longer than the humerus, with a constricted shaft and equally expanded ends (Fig. 4d). No internal trochanter is developed. The tibia is nearly equal to the fibula in length; the former is straight and thicker than the slightly curved latter. Two ossified tarsals, calcaneum and astragalus, are nearly rounded; the latter is significantly larger than the former. As in Honghesaurus23, the astragalus lacks a proximal concavity. The right metatarsals are well-preserved. Metatarsal I is the shortest and stoutest phalange with an expanded proximal end, and Metatarsal IV is the longest. Metatarsal II is nearly twice the length of Metatarsal I. Metatarsal III is slightly shorter than Metatarsal IV, and Metatarsal V is 76% of the length of Metatarsal IV. The phalangeal count is 2–3–4–6–4, which is complete judging from the appearance of the distal phalanges in the right pes (Fig. 4c). More

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Material characterization resultsTo investigate the structural composition of NMC-2, XRD analysis plots were performed. Figure 1a shows the XRD pattern of the NMC-2 composite before adsorption. The XRD pattern shows the corresponding strong and narrow peaks, from which it can be seen that the peaks of broad diffraction NMC-2 can correspond to the standard cards of Fe, C, Fe7C3, Fe2C, and FeC, indicating that the synthesized adsorbent is an iron-carbon composite. It can be indicated that mesoporous nitrogen-doped composites were formed during the carbonization process. During the experiments, it was found that the materials are magnetic, probably because of the presence of Fe, FeC, Fe7C3, Fe2C. Due to the magnetic properties of this type of material, rapid separation and recovery can be obtained under the conditions of an applied magnetic field, which allows easy separation of the adsorbent and metal ions from the wastewater15.Figure 1XRD and nitrogen adsorption and desorption tests on materials: (a) XRD pattern of NMC-2 adsorbent before adsorption, (b) pore size distribution of NMC-2, (c) nitrogen adsorption–desorption curve of NMC-2 adsorbent.Full size imageFrom the adsorption–desorption curves of adsorbent N2 in Fig. 1b, it can be seen that the NMC-2 isotherm belongs to the class IV curve, and the appearance of H3-type hysteresis loops is observed at the medium pressure end, and H3 is commonly found in aggregates with laminar structure, producing slit mesoporous or macroporous materials, which indicates that N2 condenses and accumulates in the pore channels, and these phenomena prove that NMC-2 is a porous material16. Figure 1c shows the pore size distribution of the adsorbent NMC-2 obtained according to the BJH calculation method, from which it can be seen that the pore size distribution is not uniform in the range, and most of them are concentrated below 20 nm, while according to Table 1, the specific surface area of the original sample of Fenton sludge and fly ash is 124.08 m2/g and 3.79 m2/g, respectively, and the specific surface area of NMC-2 is 228.65 m2/g. The Fenton The pore volume of the original samples of Fenton sludge and fly ash were 0.18 cm3/g and 0.006 cm3/g respectively, while the pore volume of NMC-2 was 0.24 cm3/g. The pore diameters of the original sample of Fenton sludge and fly ash were 5.72 nm and 6.70 nm respectively, while the pore diameter of NMC-2 was 4.22 nm. The above data indicated that the synthetic materials have increased the specific surface area and pore volume compared with the original samples, indicating that the doping of nitrogen can increase the specific surface area of the material. Since the pore size of mesoporous materials is 2–50 nm, NMC-2 is a porous material with main mesopores. Thanks to the large specific surface area provided by the mesopores, the material has a large number of active sites, and in addition, the mesopores can store more Cr(VI)16, which contributes to efficient removal.Table 1 Total pore-specific surface area, pore volume, and pore size of BJH adsorption and accumulation of Fenton sludge, fly ash and NMC-2.Full size tableThe morphological analysis of the material surface using SEM can see the surface structure and the pore structure of NMC-2. And Fig. 2a–d shows the swept electron microscope image of NMC-2. Figure 2a shows that the surface of the material is not smooth, and there are more lint-like fiber structures. The fibers in Fig. 2b are loosely and irregularly arranged, which may be due to the irregular morphology caused by the small particles of the NMC-2 sample. As shown in Fig. 2c and Fig. 2a there are more pores generated on the surface of NMC-2, which may be due to the addition of K2CO3 to urea and, Fenton sludge solution to generate CO217.Figure 2SEM, TEM and EDS testing of materials: (a–d) SEM image of NMC-2 adsorbent, (e) TEM image of NMC-2; (g–i) TEM-EDS spectrum of NMC-2, (j) TEM-EDS spectra of NMC-2 obtained from.Full size imageThese pores can provide many active sites, which is consistent with the results derived in Fig. 1, where NMC-2 is a mesoporous-dominated porous material, and also demonstrates that the addition of urea can provide a nitrogen source for the material, providing abundant active sites. Figure 2j depicts the TEM of NMC-2. the TEM images show that the synthesized NMC-2 has a folded structure with a surface covered by a carbon film, and the HRTEM (Fig. 2e) also confirms this result with a lattice spacing of 0.13, 0.15, 0.20, 0.23, 0.24, and 0.25 nm, corresponding to the (4 5 2) and (1 0 2) of C, the (2 0 1) of FeC) surface, the (2 1 0) surface of Fe7C3, the (5 3 1) surface of Fe2C, and the (2 0 1) surface of FeC, which also confirms the synthesis of the above substances. The corresponding EDS spectra of the dark field diagram NMC-2 were obtained from Fig. 2j, and the EDS spectra proved the presence of various elements: carbon (C) (Fig. 2f) from fly ash, iron (Fe) (Fig. 2g) from Fenton sludge, nitrogen (N) (Fig. 2h) from urea, and the presence of (O) (Fig. 2i), further confirming the successful preparation of NMC-2.The type of functional groups and chemical bonding on the surface of the material can be analyzed by IR spectrogram analysis. Figure 3b shows the FTIR image of NMC-2 adsorbent 3440 cm−1 wide and strong absorption peak is due to the stretching vibration of –OH, there is a large amount of –OH present on the surface of the material; the peak appearing at 1640 cm−1 is –COOH. Characterization reveals that the –OH absorption peak is wider18,19. In addition, the absorptions at 1390 cm−1 and 1000 cm−1 were attributed to the bending of –OH vibrations of alcohols and phenol and the stretching vibration of C–O20. The above results indicate that the surface of NMC-2 contains a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups, and these functional groups can provide many active sites for the removal of Cr(VI). It was also found that the weak peaks corresponding to 573 cm−1 and 550 cm−1 were attributed to Fe–O groups21. The stretching of Fe–O may be due to the oxidation of loaded Fe0 and Fe2+ to Fe3+22. Figure 3a shows the Fenton sludge and fly ash FTIR images. It can be seen from the figure that the surfaces of Fenton sludge and fly ash contain a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups, the surface functional groups of the two raw materials are more abundant, and the functional groups of NMC-2 around 3441 cm−1, 1632 cm−1, and 1400 cm−1 are not significantly different from those of the raw materials, and the C–H stretching vibration peaks of NMC-2 around 873 cm−1 and 698 cm−1 is not obvious, which may be because the material the C–H bond on the surface of the raw material was oxidized to C–O in the process of synthesis.Figure 3FTIR testing of materials: (a) FTIR image of Fenton sludge, fly ash, (b) Ftir image of NMC-2 adsorbent.Full size imageCr(VI) adsorption experimentSelection of adsorbentTo select the best adsorbent, Cr(VI) adsorption tests were performed on four adsorbents. Figure 4a shows the effect of Fenton sludge and the urea addition on the adsorption efficiency. The Cr(VI) removal rates of the four adsorbents were ranked from low to high: MC-1  More

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A map of the Amazon River and its tributaries, as published in Alfred Russel Wallace’s 1853 book.Credit: Mary Evans/Natural History Museum

Dzoodzo Baniwa, a member of an Indigenous community in Brazil’s Amazonas state, has been collecting data on the region’s biodiversity for around 15 years. He lives in a remote village called Canadá on the Ayari River, a tributary of the Içana, which in turn feeds the Rio Negro, one of the main branches of the Amazon. The nearest city, São Gabriel da Cachoeira, is a three-day trip by motor boat.Dzoodzo (who goes by his Indigenous name but is also known as Juvêncio Cardoso) takes inspiration for his work from many cross-cultural sources. A perhaps unexpected one is a 170-year-old book by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, who visited the Amazon and Negro rivers on his expeditions in 1848–52. A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro gives detailed accounts of the wildlife and people Wallace encountered near Dzoodzo’s home, including the Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola), a bright orange bird that Wallace describes as “magnificent … sitting amidst the gloom, shining out like a mass of brilliant flame”1.Dzoodzo’s passion for local biodiversity is reflected in his work at Baniwa Eeno Hiepole School, an internationally praised education centre for Indigenous people. He dreams of one day turning it into a research institute and university that might increase scientific understanding of the region’s species, including R. rupicola.
Alfred Russel Wallace’s first expedition ended in flames
Wallace, who was born 200 years ago, on 8 January 1823, is best known for spurring Charles Darwin into finally publishing On the Origin of Species, after Wallace sent Darwin his own independent discovery of evolution by natural selection in 1858. Most of Wallace’s subsequent work drew on observations from his 1854–62 expeditions in southeast Asia; his earlier work in Amazonia is much less well known.Yet there are lessons from Wallace’s time in Brazil that are especially relevant for conservationists and other scientists today — notably, what can come from paying attention to what local people say about their own territory.Barriers and boundariesWallace made two key contributions that still shape thinking about Amazonia, the world’s most biodiverse region, which covers parts of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.On 14 December 1852, Wallace read out his manuscript ‘On the monkeys of the Amazon’ at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London. In this study, which was later published2, Wallace relays observations that form the basis of the most debated hypothesis for how Amazonian organisms diversified: the riverine barrier hypothesis.His paper refers to the large Amazonian rivers as spatial boundaries to the ranges of several primate species. “I soon found that the Amazon, the Rio Negro and the Madeira formed the limits beyond which certain species never passed,” he writes. Since 1852, Wallace’s observations that large rivers could act as geographical barriers that shape the distribution of species have been corroborated, criticized and debated by many. The phenomenon he described clearly holds for some groups, such as monkeys and birds3,4, but not for other groups, such as plants and insects5.Subsequent researchers have explored whether the distribution patterns of species, such as those observed by Wallace, indicate that the evolution of the Amazonian drainage system has itself driven the diversification of species6. Work in the past few years by geologists and biologists show that this drainage system, which includes some of the largest rivers in the world, is dynamic7, and that its rearrangements lead to changes in the distribution ranges of species8. Current species ranges thus hold information about how the Amazonian landscape has changed over time.

The Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola), which Wallace likened to a “brilliant flame”.Credit: Hein Nouwens/Getty

The second crucial observation made by Wallace, also in his 1852 paper, was that the composition of species varies in different regions. He describes how “several Guiana species come up to the Rio Negro and Amazon, but do not pass them; Brazilian species on the contrary reach but do not pass the Amazon to the north. Several Ecuador species from the east of the Andes reach down into the tongue of land between the Rio Negro and Upper Amazon, but pass neither of those rivers, and others from Peru are bounded on the north by the Upper Amazon, and on the east by the Madeira.” From these observations, he concluded that “there are four districts, the Guiana, the Ecuador, the Peru and the Brazil districts, whose boundaries on one side are determined by the rivers I have mentioned.”
Evolution’s red-hot radical
Even though Amazonia is presented as a single, large, green ellipse in most world maps, it is actually a heterogeneous place, with each region and habitat type holding a distinct set of species9,10. The four districts proposed by Wallace are bounded by the region’s largest rivers: the Amazon, Negro and Madeira. But further studies of species ranges since then have revealed more districts, now called areas of endemism, some of which are also bounded by these and other large Amazonian rivers, such as the Tapajós, Xingu and Tocantins9,11.This recognition of spatial heterogeneity in Amazonian species distributions — first accomplished by Wallace — is essential for today’s research, conservation and planning10. Each area of endemism includes species that occur only in that area. And different areas of endemism are affected differently by anthropogenic impacts, such as deforestation, fires and development10. More than half of Amazonia is now within federal or state reserves or Indigenous lands — territories that are recognized by current governments as belonging to Indigenous people. But nearly half of the region’s areas of endemism are located in the south of the region, close to the agricultural frontier, and the species they contain are severely threatened by habitat loss10 (see also www.raisg.org/en).Local knowledgeAlthough Wallace’s writings indicate that in many ways he admired most of the Indigenous people he met, especially those from the upper Rio Negro basin, he still viewed Indigenous people through the European colonial lens of his time. In A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro1, Wallace describes the Indigenous communities he encountered as “in an equally low state of civilization” — albeit seemingly “capable of being formed, by education and good government, into a peaceable and civilized community”.Yet he did better than many of his contemporaries when it came to respecting local knowledge. In his 1852 paper, for example, Wallace notes that his fellow European naturalists often give vague information about the locality of their collected specimens, and fail to specify such localities in relation to river margins. By contrast, he writes, the “native hunters are perfectly acquainted” with the impact of rivers on the distribution of species, “and always cross over the river when they want to procure particular animals, which are found even on the river’s bank on one side, but never by any chance on the other.” Likewise, in his 1853 book1, Wallace frequently corroborates his findings with information he has obtained from Indigenous people — for example, about the habitat preferences of umbrellabirds (Cephalopterus ornatus) or of “cow-fish” (manatees; Trichechus inunguis).Considering the vastness and complexity of Amazonia, it is hard to see how Wallace could have gained the insights he did after working in the region for only four years, had he not paid close attention to local knowledge.
The other beetle-hunter
Amazonian Indigenous peoples have had to endure invasion of their lands, enslavement, violence from invaders and the imposition of other languages and cultures. Despite this, numerous Indigenous researchers wish to expand their knowledge about Amazonia by combining Indigenous and European world views. Meanwhile, a better understanding of how the Amazonian socio-ecological system is organized, and how it is being affected by climate change and local and regional impacts12, hinges on the ability of researchers worldwide to learn from and to be led by Indigenous scientists.The 98 Indigenous lands in the Rio Negro basin cover more than 33 million hectares (see go.nature.com/3wkkftu). If the hopes of Dzoodzo and others to build a research institute and university for the region are met, school students will no longer have to leave their homeland to pursue higher education. The community would have a way to document its own knowledge and that of its ancestors in a more systematic way. And the legitimization of Indigenous people’s research efforts in the legal and academic frameworks recognized by non-Indigenous scientists — such as through the awarding of degrees — would make it easier for Indigenous researchers to partner with other organizations, both nationally and internationally.Indigenous people in the Rio Negro basin today are no longer objects of observation — they have taken charge of their own research using tools from different cultures. Indeed, Dzoodzo is turning to Wallace’s writings, in part, to learn more about how his own ancestors lived.Perhaps the thread between Wallace and Dzoodzo, spanning so many years and such disparate cultures, could seed new kinds of partnership in which learning is reciprocal and for the benefit of all. More