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Study area and soil collectionTwenty NRCS map units were selected across Hawaii Commercial & Sugar Company (HC&S) in central Maui that represented seven soil orders, 10 NRCS soil series, and approximately 77% of the total plantation area (Fig. 1). Soil heterogeneity across the landscape allowed for the comparison of a continuum of soil and soil properties that have experienced the same C4 grass inputs and agricultural treatment under sugarcane production for over 100 years. Conventional sugarcane production involved 2-year growth followed by harvest burn, collection of remaining stalks by mechanical ripper, deep tillage to 40 cm, no crop rotations, and little to no residue return. The sampled soils, collected from September-August 2015, thus represent a baseline of SOC after input-intensive tropical agriculture and long-term soil disturbance. Elemental analyses from this work show consistent agricultural disturbances led to degraded SOC content ranging from 0.23 to 2.91% SOC of soil mass with an average of only 1.16% SOC across all locations and depths.Figure 1Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar in central Maui with main Hawaiian Islands inset (left). Soil series identified by NRCS across HC&S fields (right) with black dots indicating 20 locations where soils were sampled to test landscape level differences in topical soil kinetics and associated soil properties under conventional sugarcane. Maps from Ref.19 created using ESRI ArcGIS with soil series data from: Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Web Soil Survey, Available online at http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/. Accessed [07/30/2016]19.Full size imageThe homogenized land use history allowed focused investigation of soil property effects on SOC storage across heterogenous soils (Table 1). Though soil inputs (e.g. water, nutrients, root inputs, residue removal) and disturbance regimes (e.g. burn, rip, till, compaction, no crop rotation) were consistent across the 20 field locations, average annual surface temperatures varied from 22.9 to 25.1 °C with a mean of 24.4 °C, average annual relative humidity varied from 70.4 to 79.2% with a mean of 73.4%, and average annual rainfall varied from 306 to 1493 mm with a mean of 575 mm. Gradients of rainfall, relative humidity, and elevation across the site generally increase in an east/north-east direction towards the prevailing winds and up the western slope of Haleakalā. In contrast, surface temperatures increase in the opposite direction towards Kihei and the southern tip of the West Maui Mountains.Table 1 NRCS soil classification and environmental conditions at 20 field sites.Full size tableaSoil descriptions26.bInterpolated estimates from Ref.25.Soil sampling and analysisPit locations were identified with a handheld GPS and were sampled using NRCS Rapid Carbon Assessment methods27. A total of 75 horizons were identified from the 20 selected map units to a depth of 1 m28,29. The central depth of each horizon was sampled using volumetric bulk density cores up to 50 cm. After 50 cm, a hand auger was used to check for any further horizon changes. The bulk density of horizons past 50 cm were estimated using collected soil mass and known auger size. Collected soils were air dried, processed through a 2 mm sieve, and analyzed for total C and nitrogen percent, SOC percent, soil texture, iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) minerals, pH, cation and anion exchange capacity, extractable cations, wet and dry size classes, aggregate stability, and soil water potential at -15 kPa. Total C and nitrogen were measured by elemental analysis (Costech, ECS 4010, Valencia, CA), with SOC content determined by elemental analysis after hydrochloric acid digestion to remove carbonates. Soil texture was measured using sedimentary separation, while a 10:1 soil slurry in water was used to test soil pH. Soil pressure plates were used to measure soil water potential at -15 kPa.Fe and Al oxides were quantified in mineral phases using selective dissolutions of collected soils, including: (1) a 20:1 sodium citrate to sodium dithionite extraction, shaken 16 h, to quantify total free minerals30, (2) 0.25 M hydroxylamine hydrochloride and hydrochloric acid extraction, shaken 16 h, to quantify amorphous minerals31, and (3) 0.1 M sodium pyrophosphate (pH 10), shaken 16 h and centrifuged at 20,000g, to quantify organo-bound metals30. Extracted Fe, Al, and Si from al extractions were measured by inductively coupled plasma analysis (PerkinElmer, Optima ICP-OES, Norwalk, CT). Exploratory ratios of Fe/Al, Fe/Si, and Al/Si for the citrate/dithionite (c), hydroxylamine (h), and pyrophosphate (p) extractions were calculated. Crystalline Fe, operationally-defined as the difference between the citrate dithionite and hydroxylamine extraction, and Al + ½ Fe32 were calculated for each extraction.Plant-available phosphorus was extracted by the Olsen method using 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate adjusted to pH 8.5 and measured by continuous flow colorimetry (Hach, Lachat Quickchem 8500, Loveland, CO). Exchangeable cations (i.e. calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium), effective cation exchange capacity, and anion exchange capacity were measured by compulsive exchange using barium chloride and magnesium sulfate33. Cations were quantified by continuous flow colorimetry and flame-spectroscopy (Hach, Lachat Quickchem 8500, Loveland, CO). Field soils were air dried and initially passed through a 2 mm sieve before size classes of macroaggregate (2 mm – 250 µm) and microaggregate ( More

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