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Surface-attached bacteria move towards antibiotics via twitching motilityWe used microfluidic devices and automated cell tracking to quantify the movement of P. aeruginosa cells as they are exposed to well-defined spatial gradients of antibiotics in developing biofilms (Fig. 1). We began with the antibiotic ciprofloxacin, which is widely used to treat P. aeruginosa infections27,28. To set a baseline, we first determined the minimum inhibitory concentration (hereafter MIC) of ciprofloxacin for P. aeruginosa (strain PAO1) in shaking cultures, which agrees with the published MIC of this strain (Fig. S129). We then exposed surface-attached cells to an antibiotic gradient in a microfluidic device where the antibiotic concentration ranged from zero to 10 times the MIC (Fig. 1A, B, Methods). After approximately 5 h of unbiased movement, we were surprised to see that twitching cells began to bias their movement towards increasing concentrations of ciprofloxacin (Fig. 1B, D, Movie 1). The movement bias, β, defined as the number of cells moving up the gradient divided by the number of cells moving down the gradient, peaks after approximately 10 h and then decays as the surface becomes crowded with cells (Movie 1) and tracking becomes difficult (Methods). The flow through the device also has a small influence on the direction of cell movement because it tends to pull cells in the downstream direction (Fig. 1B, C, E). However, this fluid flow is orthogonal to the direction of the antibiotic gradient, and so does not explain the movement towards antibiotics.Fig. 1: Twitching P. aeruginosa cells bias their motility towards increasing antibiotic concentrations.A A dual-inlet microfluidic device generates steady antibiotic gradients (e.g. ciprofloxacin, CMAX = 10X MIC) via molecular diffusion. Isocontours were calculated using mathematical modelling (Methods) and background shading shows approximate ciprofloxacin distribution visualised using fluorescein. B Red (blue) cell trajectories are moving towards (away from) increasing [ciprofloxacin]. Inset: A circular histogram of cell movement direction reveals movement bias towards increasing [ciprofloxacin]. A two-sided binomial test rejects the null hypothesis that trajectories are equally likely to be directed up or down the [ciprofloxacin] gradient (p  More

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