Philippa Kaur

npj Biodiversity aims to be a common forum where discoveries in all areas of biodiversity science can be discussed, so that the research in specific topics with broad implications for other disciplines permeates the whole community. This requires that scientific debates are made in egalitarian terms between people with different backgrounds and points of view. We will strive to provide safe spaces where all biodiversity research can be showcased without bias, and theoretical and practical advances can be subject to calm and civil debate. As journal editors we will implement measures to work towards a fairer and more inclusive science, such as giving proper recognition to all researchers involved in the research published13, or ensuring in revisions that former research made by different identity groups and local scientists is adequately acknowledged14. We will also acknowledge diversity by maintaining a diverse editorial board15 and engaging external peer-reviewers16 that represent local specialists, the diversity of approaches in each field, as well as early-career researchers across demographic groups. We will also encourage access to research and engage in the FAIR principles for data management and sharing17. Here, good practice includes making data available for reanalysis or compilation in larger databases by researchers anywhere in the world, promoting open software, and sharing reproducible code18,19. Our hope is that this extends the capacity of developing meta-analyses and macroecological and macroevolutionary research beyond the borders of high-income countries.npj Biodiversity seeks to promote scientific discussion and synthesis. As editors, we will act as guides and moderators rather than as gatekeepers that merely decide which papers are above the threshold of publication20. Thus, we encourage debate as a central part of the editorial process, allowing well-grounded and clearly-identified speculation and policy-related statements in published papers when appropriate. This may include publishing non-conventional papers that foster discussion in established topics or open new research avenues21, if and only if they are well supported by data or published evidence. In this sense, we welcome Comments on areas currently under discussion, as well as Reviews and Perspectives that allow synthesis in theoretical and practical topics that are not necessarily general, but can help advance specific subdisciplines or topics. Last but not least, we want to facilitate communication between basic research and applied practitioners through Perspectives that translate the implications of recent research for management, conservation and adaptation to global change, or that identify which theoretical advances or additional empirical evidence would be needed to tackle specific problems.Creating the appropriate publishing environment for journals to be true forums for debate and provide value to the scientific community is a challenging enterprise. Above all, it requires escaping from the haste imposed by the “publish or perish model”, and making an explicit effort to raise the quality of the editorial process. In npj Biodiversity we will seek to follow ‘slow publishing’ principles, putting emphasis on meaningful debate between authors, editors and reviewers22. Current research environments can prevent researchers from having time to think, but true advance stems from digesting ideas and discussing them with the detail, depth and time they may need (http://slow-science.org/)23,24,25. Therefore, to contribute to a healthier, gentler and more thoughtful approach to biodiversity science, we will provide thorough and thoughtful reviews. We will make editorial decisions that, when paired with equally thorough and thoughtful work by authors, can reduce the number of times a paper bounces back and forth in successive rounds of peer review and revision. Note that this does not necessarily mean longer editorial times! Paradoxically, when authors, reviewers and editors commit to these “slow” publishing principles, the publication process can speed up. And most importantly, it will promote the spirit of productive debate that we aim for in npj Biodiversity. More

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Study areaSituated in western India’s southwestern part of the Gujarat state, the Saurashtra region typically represents the semi-arid Gujarat-Rajputana province 4B23, which covers 11 out of 33 districts of the state. The region forms a rocky tableland (altitude 300–600 m) fringed by coastal plains with an undulating central plain broken by hills and dissected by various rivers that flow in all directions24. With the longest coastline (~ 1600 km) in India, Gujarat is endowed with rich coastal biodiversity25,26. The Saurashtra coast in Gujarat is encircled by the open sea between two Gulfs (68° 58′–71° 30′ N and 22° 15′–20° 50′ E) and divided into two segments, viz. the southwestern coast from Dwarka to Diu (~ 300 km stretch) and south-eastern coast from Diu to Bhavnagar (~ 250 km stretch)26.The Asiatic Lion Landscape covers an area of ~ 30,000 km2 (permanent lion distribution range: ~ 16,000 km2; visitation record range: ~ 14,000 km2) of varied habitat types within Saurashtra. The landscape includes five protected areas (Gir National Park, Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, Paniya Wildlife Sanctuary, Mitiyala Wildlife Sanctuary, and Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary) and other forest classes (reserved forests, protected forests, and unclassed forests).The coastal habitats extend across the districts of Bhavnagar, Amreli, Gir-Somnath, and Junagadh (Fig. 1). Within these districts (Fig. 1), the tehsils (sub-divisions/taluka) of Mangrol, Malia, Patan-Veraval, Sutrapada, Kodinar and Una are categorized under the southwestern coast (hereafter western coastal habitat), Jafrabad, Rajula, form the south-eastern coast and Mahuva and Talaja constitute the Bhavnagar coast and represent distinct lion range units (Fig. 1). The total area covered in the study is 2843 km2 on the eastern coast and 1413 km2 on the western coast (Fig. 1).The Saurashtra region is bestowed with three distinct seasons, viz. dry and hot summer (March–June), monsoon (July–October), and primarily dry winter (November–February). It receives a mean annual rainfall of ~ 600 mm, with most rainfall during the southwest monsoon27. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures are 34 °C and 19 °C, respectively28. There is a 110 km2 stretch of forests along the coast. The rest of the areas are multi-use consisting of private, industrial, pastoral and wastelands of varied ownerships. The natural vegetation primarily consists of Prosopis juliflora and Casuarina equistsetifolia. On the beach and dune areas, vegetation such as Ipomea pescaprae, Sporobolus trinules, Fimrystylis sp., Crotalaria sp., and Euphorbia nivuleria29. The mudflats along the coast are restricted to Talaja, Mahuva, Pipavav Port, Jafrabad creek, and Porbandar, sparsely covered by the Avicennia marina29. Fisheries, agriculture, horticulture, livestock rearing, and some large- and small-scale industries are the leading economies in the coastal belt.Coastal segments are characterized by the variety of vegetation, sandy beaches, small cliffs, wave-cut platforms, open and submerged dunes, minor estuaries, embankments, and transition from the open sea to gulf environment with tidal mud26,29 and also support a diverse assemblage of biodiversity25. This biodiversity is further enriched by several perennial/ephemeral rivers originating from the Gir PA (Shetrunji, Machundari, Raval, Ardak, Bhuvatirth, Shinghoda, Hiran, Saraswati, etc.)12. These rivers meet the sea at different sections of the coast, forming prominent coastal ecosystems25. The riverine tracts act as important corridors for wildlife movement9,12,30. Dispersing through these corridors, lions have started inhabiting these coastal habitats30,31.MethodsAll the research activities involved in this study on Asiatic lions were carried out after taking due permission from the Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India (Letter No.: F. No. 1-50/2018 WL) and Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) & Chief Wildlife Warden, Gujarat State, Gandhinagar (Letter No.: WLP 26B 781-83/2019-20). Procedures and protocols were followed as per the Standard Operating Procedures of the Gujarat Forest Department, Government of Gujarat, concerning the handling of wild animals. Qualified and experienced veterinarians and their team carried out all procedures related to radio-collaring. Moreover, the study is reported in accordance with ‘Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments’ (ARRIVE) guidelines as applicable.A long-term lion monitoring project was initiated in 2019 by the Gujarat Forest Department to understand the movement patterns and ecology of lions in the Asiatic Lion Landscape. Looking at the heterogeneity and vastness of the coastal areas, ten individuals were carefully selected for satellite radio-collaring based on their frequent movement in different coastal habitats and monitored from 2019 to 2021.The lions were deployed with Vertex Plus GPS Collars (Vectronics Aerospace GmbH, Berlin, Germany) that weighed less than three per cent of the individual’s body weight, irrespective of age and sex. The lions were immobilized using a combination of Ketamine hydrochloride (2.2 mg per kg body weight; Ketamine, Biowet, Pulawy) and Xylazine hydrochloride (1.1 mg per kg body weight; Xylaxil, Brilliant Bio Pharma Pvt. Ltd., Telangana)32 administered intramuscularly using a gas-powered Telinject™ G.U.T 50 (Telinject Inc., Dudenhofen, Germany) dart delivery system. A blindfold was placed to protect the eyes and decrease visual stimuli33,34. Each sedated individual was sexed, aged, and measured as per the standard operating procedure (SOP) of the Gujarat Forest Department, Government of Gujarat, and recorded the data in the trapping datasheet. The radio-collars were deployed considering the neck girth of the individual, ensuring free movement of it so as not to hamper the individual’s routine activities. After deploying the radio-collar, we used the specific antidote for Xylazine, i.e., Yohimbine hydrochloride (0.1–0.15 mg per kg body weight; Yohimbe, Equimed, USA) intravenously, resulting in the total recovery of immobilized individuals32 within 5–10 min. The individuals were intensively monitored for 72 h and, after that, regularly monitored throughout the functional period of the radio-collars. The entire radio-collaring exercise was carried out by trained and experienced veterinary officers and their teams that constituted wildlife health care personnel and field staff.Each collar had a unique VHF and UHF frequency. The radio-collars were equipped with a programmable GPS schedule and configured to record the location fixes at every hour and provided the data through the constellation of low-earth-orbit Iridium satellite data service (Iridium Communications Inc., Virginia, USA) at four-hour intervals after getting activated. The data logs included location fixes in degree decimal format (latitude/longitude), speed (km/hour), altitude (meters above mean sea level), UTC timestamp (dd-mm-yyyy h:m:s), direction (degrees), and temperature (Celsius). Radio-collars were equipped with mortality sensors and a programmable drop-off activation system. Gir Hi-Tech Monitoring Unit, Sasan-Gir, Gujarat, monitored and coordinated these activities. The location data from each radio-collar was downloaded using the GPS Plus X software (Vectronics Aerospace GmbH, Berlin, Germany) in the Gir Hi-Tech Monitoring Unit (a technology-driven scientific monitoring initiative in the landscape established in 2019 at Sasan-Gir, Gujarat).Data analysisIn this study, we calculated the home range of lions resident in the coastal region using the Fixed Kernel method. We expressed them as 90% and 50% Fixed Kernel (FK) to summarize the overall home range and core area, respectively35,36,37. Additionally, the home range of lions categorized as “link lions” and lions of the protected area was summarized for comparison (Table 1).MaxEnt (version 3.4.1) stand-alone software38 was applied for fine-scaled lion distribution modelling39,40. The logistic output format was set for the MaxEnt output. 30% random lion occurrence points were used as test data to evaluate model performance. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was used to evaluate the discriminative ability of the model based on the values of sensitivity (correct discrimination of true positive location points) and specificity (correct discrimination of true negative absence points)41. The Jackknife regularised training gain for the species was used to understand the effect of each variable in model building. The logical output by the MaxEnt was presented in a table format as “percent contribution” and “permutation importance” values (from 0 to 100%). Spatial inputs were prepared on the GIS platform using ArcMap (version 10.8.1, ESRI, Redlands, USA)42. Input data for MaxEnt were categorized as (i) lion occurrence data, (ii) model variables were prepared as described below:

i.

Occurrence data
At the first level, inconsistent location fixes (records with missing coordinates, time stamps, and elevation) and outliers were filtered out. Next, each lion’s hourly GPS location fixes obtained from remotely monitored radio-telemetry data were randomized to overcome spatial and temporal biases. The data was reduced by taking every three-hour location fix43,44. The data was further categorized season-wise, viz. summer, monsoon and winter. This consolidated data was then subject to spatial thinning of one kilometre using SDMtoolbox (version 2.0)45,46.

ii.

Model variables

The variables used for distribution modelling broadly included different categories of land use, including both natural habitats and anthropogenic factors, namely, roads and human settlement areas. All variables were rasterized at 10 m spatial resolution.Land Use Land Cover (LULC) data of Saurashtra was obtained from Bhaskaracharya National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-informatics (BISAG-N), Gandhinagar, Gujarat. The data was then further classified into 18 sub-classes—Forest, Sandy areas, Salt-affected, Saltpan, open scrub, dense scrub (Wastelands), Waterlogged, River/Stream/Drain, Lakes and Ponds, Mining/Industrial areas, Reservoir/Tanks, Mangrove/Swamp Area, Crop Land, Agriculture Plantation (horticulture and agro-forestry), Core urban, Mixed settlement, Peri-urban, Village (Fig. 2).Roads and highways were also analyzed as separate variables in the model. Roads were classified as village roads, major district roads, and state and national highways and digitized individually to estimate Euclidean distance further (Table 2). Euclidean distance from the human settlement (Core-urban, Peri-urban, villages and mixed settlement) was analyzed and taken as a separate input variable for the model. More

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