Philippa Kaur

Vegetation is the main component of terrestrial ecosystems and as an indicator of ecosystem changes. In the world’s land area, forest land accounts for about 30%, grassland accounts for 26%, and cultivated land accounts for about 12%1. China has the second largest grassland area in the world. The total grassland is 392 million hectares in China, which is about 12% of the world’s grassland area and about 41% of China’s national territorial area, which is about twice of China’s arable land2. In China, the type of grassland ranks first in the world, mainly including northern grasslands, southern grassy hills and slopes, coastal beaches, wetlands, and natural grasslands in agricultural areas. It includes 18 major categories, 38 subcategories, and more than 1,000 types. The grassland resources also contain extremely rich biodiversity, with more than 7,000 pastures and thousands of animals, making it as the largest biological gene pool in Asia and also the world.
Grassland plays an important role in ecological environment protection and animal husbandry development. Like the grasslands in Europe, China’s land use forms, management objectives, and use systems are becoming increasingly diversified3. Grassland has not only made great contributions to preventing soil erosion, purifying chemical fertilizers and pesticides, regulating groundwater, and promoting biodiversity, but also as a basic nutrient for herbivores and ruminants, providing environmental benefits for ensuring the health of grassland animal products. In addition, grassland has aesthetic and entertainment functions, and it can provide functions that other agricultural land use types do not have. In addition, grassland also has an important ecological function of regulating climate4,5,6, for example, grasslands can significantly contribute to climate mitigation while providing substantial additional ecosystem services7. Grassland is the only land use type that can accomplish so many tasks and meet so many requirements.Grasslands are highly vulnerable to climate change or human activities8, the research on the relationship between grassland coverage change and its human influencing factors can reflect the scope and degree of influence of natural conditions and human activities on grassland coverage change and has a reference significance for balancing economic development and environmental protection. Grassland is not only an important material basis and means of production for the development of animal husbandry but also an important natural barrier to economic development in southeast china. Zhejiang province is located in the Yangtze River Delta, the transportation is quite convenient, the economic foundation is very well and the economy develops very rapid9. Meanwhile, with the rapid development of industrialization and urbanization, the change in land use form has been breathtaking, and human activities have improved the degree of land exploitation and utilization. The natural grassland area in Zhejiang Province is 3 million hm2, about 30% of the total land area of the province, of which the available grassland area is 600,000 hm2, for about 20% of the total area of natural grassland. Accordingly, there is enormous potential for developing the grassland industry in Zhejiang province10.There are three ways to calculate the grassland coverage, (1) field measurement method, (2) remote sensing estimation method, and (3) integrated measurement method of field measurement and remote sensing estimation11. The field measurement method is not suitable for large-scale measurement and measuring alone in various applications, because the measurement range of this method is limited, it is only suitable for the selected field plot. For remote sensing estimation method does not depend on field measurement data, and can reduce the workload and save time, so it is suitable for large-scale grass coverage estimation. At the same time, the field measurement method is an indispensable auxiliary and verification method for modern measurement methods such as remote sensing. Therefore, the comprehensive measurement method of field measurement and remote sensing can obtain more reliable data.With the rapid development of aerospace science and technology, more and more remote sensing data can be used to monitor land use form12. Currently, the most commonly used remote sensing images include Landsat MSS/TM/ETM+, NOAA/AVHRR, and EOS-MODIS. In recent years, satellite SAR, SPOT, CBERS, and other images have also been widely used in research. For global or state-scale land research, NOAA/AVHRR and MODIS data are mainly used. For regional scale, as long as Landsat TM/ETM+ and other high-resolution data are applied.The change of grassland coverage in Zhejiang Province and its effect factors are of great significance to the development of animal husbandry, the rational development and utilization of land, and the balanced development of the economy and environment. However, there are few studies have been done about this. Therefore, we present the following questions: (1) How did the grassland coverage change in Zhejiang Province from 1980 to 2018? (2) What are the main factors that affect the change in grassland coverage? This study aims to make clear grassland coverage Change and quantitative assessment of its effect factors. Meanwhile, the result of this study will provide a more comprehensive knowledge of the grassland of Zhejiang Province as well as useful suggestions for grassland resource management and sustainable development. More

Surface energy fluxes and componentsIn our study, we focused on the circumpolar land north of 60° latitude, and specifically on the extent of the circumpolar Arctic vegetation map (CAVM20, Supplementary Fig. 1–3). We obtained half-hourly and hourly in situ observations of energy fluxes and meteorological variables from the monitoring networks FLUXNET28 (fluxnet.org; FLUXNET2015 dataset), AmeriFlux29 (ameriflux.lbl.gov), AON31,32 (aon.iab.uaf.edu), ICOS (icos-cp.eu), GEM35,36 (g-e-m.dk), GC-Net33,34 (cires1.colorado.edu/steffen/gcnet) and PROMICE30; (promice.dk; Supplementary Table 3). We did not include observations from the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN; bsrn.awi.de) and Global Energy Balance Archive (GEBA; geba.ethz.ch) because they typically lack information on non-radiative energy fluxes. Finally, we did not include observations from the European Flux Database Cluster (EFDC, europe-fluxdata.eu) because these data are largely located outside the domain of the CAVM20.We aggregated surface energy fluxes and components (Supplementary Table 1) to daily resolution as follows: (i) we extracted only directly measured data and excluded gap-filled data by filtering according to quality information; (ii) we performed a basic outlier filtering (excluding shortwave and longwave radiation flux values >1400 Wm−2 and in case of incoming/outgoing radiation More

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I’m a coral-reef ecologist at the University of the West Indies at Cave Hill in Barbados. Every five years, as often as our funding allows, my team and I survey coral reefs for the government. I was born in Spain and earned my PhD at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. But I decided to work in the Caribbean, where I think I am more useful.We monitor the abundance and diversity of corals, algae, sponges and fish. Barbados no longer has populations of large fish, such as groupers and snappers, because of overfishing. The populations of parrotfish, Barbados’s most important species ecologically and economically, have seemed stable for the past decade.Reefs are under threat globally, and the biggest losses of corals here occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. Since the 1990s, the shallow reefs have stabilized, but the deeper reefs have continued to deteriorate. And numbers of sponges and algae, which can damage corals when too abundant, have gradually increased in the deeper reefs. Still, there are positive signs. Staghorn corals (Acropora cervicornis), which nearly went extinct here in the 1970s, are making a slow comeback.This photo was taken in early September and the water was 28 °C or 29 °C. But I still wore a wetsuit with a hood, because after 90 minutes of scuba diving, you get cold.We survey 43 sites in two months, doing one or two dives a day, three times a week. Four of us dive together; we are like a well-oiled machine.I wish we could do surveys more frequently; in a rapidly changing environment, we need to know what is happening. But there’s not enough money. Still, new technology can model reefs in 3D. Those tools are becoming more affordable, and I think we’ll be using them in the next decade. Then, we could monitor more sites more often with the same resources.I’ve wanted to be a biologist since I was a young boy. And it doesn’t get any better than studying coral reefs in your backyard. More

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