More stories

  • in

    The future of Viscum album L. in Europe will be shaped by temperature and host availability

    Walas, Ł, Ganatsas, P., Iszkuło, G., Thomas, P. A. & Dering, M. Spatial genetic structure and diversity of natural populations of Aesculus hippocastanum L. in Greece. PLoS ONE 14, e0226225 (2019).PubMed 
    PubMed Central 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Song, Y. G. et al. Past, present and future suitable areas for the relict tree Pterocarya fraxinifolia (Juglandaceae): Integrating fossil records, niche modeling, and phylogeography for conservation. Eur. J. For. Res. 140, 1323–1339 (2021).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Dyderski, M. K., Paź, S., Frelich, L. E. & Jagodziński, A. M. How much does climate change threaten European forest tree species distributions?. Glob. Change Biol. 24, 1150–1163 (2018).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Chakraborty, D., Móricz, N., Rasztovits, E., Dobor, L. & Schueler, S. Provisioning forest and conservation science with high-resolution maps of potential distribution of major European tree species under climate change. Ann. For. Sci. 78, 1–18 (2021).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Williams, J. N. et al. Using species distribution models to predict new occurrences for rare plants. Divers. Distrib. 15, 565–576 (2009).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Watling, J. I. et al. Performance metrics and variance partitioning reveal sources of uncertainty in species distribution models. Ecol. Modell. 309, 48–59 (2015).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Phillips, S. J., Anderson, R. P. & Schapire, R. E. Maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distributions. Ecol. Model. 190, 231–259 (2006).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Phillips, S. J., Dudík, M. & Schapire, R. E. [Internet] Maxent software for modeling species niches and distributions. url: http://biodiversityinformatics.amnh.org/open_source/maxent/. Accessed 13 July 2022.Elith, J. et al. A statistical explanation of MaxEnt for ecologists. Divers. Distrib. 17, 43–57 (2011).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Marcer, A., Sáez, L., Molowny-Horas, R., Pons, X. & Pino, J. Using species distribution modelling to disentangle realised versus potential distributions for rare species conservation. Biol. Conserv. 166, 221–230 (2013).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Rigling, A., Eilmann, B., Koechli, R. & Dobbertin, M. Mistletoe-induced crown degradation in Scots pine in a xeric environment. Tree Physiol. 30, 845–852 (2010).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Sangüesa-Barreda, G., Linares, J. C. & Camarero, J. J. Mistletoe effects on Scots pine decline following drought events: Insights from within-tree spatial patterns, growth and carbohydrates. Tree Physiol. 32, 585–598 (2012).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kollas, C., Gutsch, M., Hommel, R., Lasch-Born, P. & Suckow, F. Mistletoe-induced growth reductions at the forest stand scale. Tree Physiol. 38, 735–744 (2018).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Schulze, E. D. & Ehleringer, J. R. The effect of nitrogen supply on growth and water-use efficiency of xylem-tapping mistletoes. Planta 162, 268–275 (1984).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Escher, P. et al. Transpiration, CO2 assimilation, WUE, and stomatal aperture in leaves of Viscum album L: Effect of abscisic acid (ABA) in the xylem sap of its host (Populus x euamericana). Plant Physiol. Biochem. 46, 64–70 (2008).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Zweifel, R., Bangerter, S., Rigling, A. & Sterck, F. J. Pine and mistletoes: How to live with a leak in the water flow and storage system?. J. Exp. Bot. 63, 2565–2578 (2012).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Mutlu, S., Osma, E., Ilhan, V., Turkoglu, H. I. & Atici, O. Mistletoe (Viscum album) reduces the growth of the Scots pine by accumulating essential nutrient elements in its structure as a trap. Trees 30, 815–824 (2016).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Tsopelas, P., Angelopoulos, A., Economou, A. & Soulioti, N. Mistletoe (Viscum album) in the fir forest of Mount Parnis Greece. For. Ecol. Manag. 202, 59–65 (2004).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Dobbertin, M. & Rigling, A. Pine mistletoe (Viscum album ssp. austriacum) contributes to Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) mortality in the Rhone valley of Switzerland. For. Pathol. 36, 309–322 (2006).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Lech, P., Żółciak, A. & Hildebrand, R. Occurrence of European mistletoe (Viscum album L.) on forest trees in Poland and its dynamics of spread in the period 2008–2018. Forests 11, 83 (2020).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Iszkuło, G. et al. Jemioła jako zagrożenie dla zdrowotności drzewostanów iglastych. Sylwan 164, 226–236 (2020) ([In Polish]).
    Google Scholar 
    Mellado, A., Morillas, L., Gallardo, A. & Zamora, R. Temporal dynamic of parasite-mediated linkages between the forest canopy and soil processes and the microbial community. New Phytol. 211, 1382–1392 (2016).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Mellado, A. & Zamora, R. Generalist birds govern the seed dispersal of a parasitic plant with strong recruitment constraints. Oecologia 176, 139–147 (2014).ADS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Hódar, J. A., Lázaro-González, A. & Zamora, R. Beneath the mistletoe: parasitized trees host a more diverse herbaceous vegetation and are more visited by rabbits. Ann. For. Sci. 75, 1–8 (2018).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Zuber, D. Biological flora of Central Europe: Viscum album L. Flora Morphol. Distrib Funct. Ecol. Plants 199, 181–203 (2004).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Urech, K. & Baumgartner, S. Chemical constituents of Viscum album L.: Implications for the pharmaceutical preparation of mistletoe. In: Mistletoe: From mythology to evidence-based medicine. (eds. Zänker, K.S. & Kaveri, S. V.), 11–23. (S. Karger AG, Basel, Switzerland, 2015).Singh, B. N. et al. European Viscum album: a potent phytotherapeutic agent with multifarious phytochemicals, pharmacological properties and clinical evidence. RSC Adv. 6, 23837–23857 (2016).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Jeffree, C. E. & Jeffree, E. P. Redistribution of the potential geographical ranges of mistletoe and colorado beetle in Europe in response to the temperature component of climate change. Funct. Ecol. 10, 562–577 (1996).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Troels-Smith, J. Ivy, mistletoe and elm climate indicators-fodder plants. A contribution to the interpretation of the pollen zone border VII-VIII. Dan. Geol. Undersøg. IV Række 4, 1–32 (1960).
    Google Scholar 
    Dobbertin, M. et al. The upward shift in altitude of pine mistletoe (Viscum album ssp. austriacum) in Switzerland—the result of climate warming?. Int. J. Biometeorol. 50, 40–47 (2005).ADS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Zamora, R. & Mellado, A. Identifying the abiotic and biotic drivers behind the elevational distribution shift of a parasitic plant. Plant Biol. 21, 307–317 (2019).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Barney, C. W., Hawksworth, F. G. & Geils, B. W. Hosts of Viscum album. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 28, 187–208 (1998).
    Google Scholar 
    Böhling, N. et al. Notes on the Cretan mistletoe, Viscum album subsp. creticum subsp. nova (Loranthaceae/Viscaceae). Isr. J. Plant Sci. 50, 77–84 (2002).
    Google Scholar 
    Plants of the World Online [Internet] url: https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:921668-1. Accessed 13 July 2022.Zuber, D. & Widmer, A. Phylogeography and host race differentiation in the European mistletoe (Viscum album L.). Mol. Ecol. 18, 1946–1962 (2009).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Schaller, G., Urech, K., Grazi, G. & Giannattasio, M. Viscotoxin composition of the three European subspecies of Viscum album. Planta Med 64, 677–678 (1998).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kahle-Zuber, D. Biology and evolution of the European mistletoe (Viscum album). Doctoral Thesis. ETH Zurich. (2008).Zuber, D. & Widmer, A. Genetic evidence for host specificity in the hemi-parasitic Viscum album L. (Viscaceae). Mol. Ecol. 9, 1069–1073 (2000).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Mejnartowicz, L. Relationship and genetic diversity of mistletoe [Viscum album L.] subspecies. Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. Pol. 75, 39–49 (2006).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Xie, W., Adolf, J. & Melzig, M. F. Identification of Viscum album L. miRNAs and prediction of their medicinal values. PLoS ONE 12, e0187776 (2017).PubMed 
    PubMed Central 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Valle, A. C. V., de Carvalho, A. C. & Andrade, R. V. Viscum album-literature review. Int. J. Sci. Res 10, 63–71 (2021).
    Google Scholar 
    Schröder, L. et al. The gene space of European mistletoe (Viscum album). Plant J. 109, 278–294 (2022).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Sangüesa-Barreda, G. et al. Delineating limits: Confronting predicted climatic suitability to field performance in mistletoe populations. J. Ecol. 106, 2218–2229 (2018).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    GBIF.org [Internet] GBIF Occurrence Download Doi: https://doi.org/10.15468/dl.zw6f5q. Accessed 27 July 2021.GBIF.org [Internet] GBIF Occurrence Download Doi: https://doi.org/10.15468/dl.6wmc9d. Accessed 6 August 2021.FloraWeb [Internet] url: https://www.floraweb.de. Accessed 10 December 2021.Pladias – Database of the Czech Flora and Vegetation. [Internet] url: www.pladias.cz. Accessed 14 July 2022.Zając, A., Zając, M., Tertil, R. & Harman, I. Atlas rozmieszczenia roślin naczyniowych w Polsce. 593 (Instytut Botaniki Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków, 2001) [In Polish].Idžojtić, M., Kogelnik, M., Franjić, J. & Škvorc, Ž. Hosts and distribution of Viscum album L. ssp. album in Croatia and Slovenia. Plant Biosyst. 140, 50–55 (2006).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Varga, I. et al. Changes in the Distribution of European Mistletoe (Viscum album) in Hungary During the Last Hundred Years. Folia Geobot 49, 559–577 (2014).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wild, J. et al. Plant distribution data for the Czech Republic integrated in the Pladias database. Preslia 91, 1–24 (2019).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Krasylenko, Y. et al. The European mistletoe (Viscum album L.): Distribution, host range, biotic interactions, and management worldwide with special emphasis on Ukraine. Botany 98, 499–516 (2020).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Karger, D. N. et al. Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth land surface areas. Sci. Data 4, 170122 (2017).PubMed 
    PubMed Central 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Karger D. N., et al. Data from: Climatologies at high resolution for the earth’s land surface areas. Dryad Digital Repository (2018).Gutjahr, O. et al. Max planck institute earth system model (MPI-ESM1. 2) for the high-resolution model intercomparison project (HighResMIP). Geosci. Model Dev. 12, 3241–3281 (2019).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Hijmans, R. J., & van Etten, J. raster: Geographic analysis and modeling with raster data. R package version 2.0-12. (2012).R Core Team. The Comprehensive R Archive Network. [Internet] url: https://cran.r-project.org/ Accessed 14 July 2022.Chakraborty, D., Móricz, N., Rasztovits, E., Dobor, L. & Schueler, S. Provisioning forest and conservation science with European tree species distribution models under climate change (Version v1). Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3686918 (2020).Wang, Z., Chang, Y. I., Ying, Z., Zhu, L. & Yang, Y. A parsimonious threshold-independent protein feature selection method through the area under receiver operating characteristic curve. Bioinformatics 23, 2788–2794 (2007).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Lobo, J. M., Jiménez-Valverde, A. & Hortal, J. The uncertain nature of absences and their importance in species distribution modelling. Ecography 33, 103–114 (2010).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    QGIS Development Team. QGIS Geographic Information Sys-tem. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project. [Internet]. url: https://www.qgis.org/en/site/. Accessed 14 July 2022.Fischer, J. T. Water relations of mistletoes and their hosts. In: The biology of mistletoes. (eds. Calder, M., & Bernhard, T.), 163–184 (Academic Press, Sydney, 1983).Skre, O. The regional distribution of vascular plants in Scandinavia with requirements for high summer temperatures. Norweg. J. Bot. 26, 295–318 (1979).
    Google Scholar 
    Wangerin, B. Loranthaceae. In: Lebensgeschichte der Blütenpflanzen Mitteleuropas (eds. Kirchner, O. V., Loew, E., & Schroeter, C.) 2, 953–1146 (E. Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1937).Rybalka, I. A. Relationship between density of the white mistletoe (Viscum album L.) and some landscape and environmental characteristics of urban areas in the case of Kharkiv. Ekologicheskiy Vestnik 1, 87–97 (2017).
    Google Scholar 
    Patykowski, J. & Kołodziejek, J. Comparative analysis of antioxidant activity in leaves of different hosts infected by mistletoe (Viscum album L. subsp. album). Arch. Biol. Sci. 65, 851–861 (2013).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Skrypnik, L., Maslennikov, P., Feduraev, P., Pungin, A. & Belov, N. Ecological and landscape factors affecting the spread of European mistletoe (Viscum album L.) in urban areas (A Case Study of the Kaliningrad City, Russia). Plants 9, 394 (2020).PubMed Central 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kunick, W. Veränderungen von Flora und Vegetation einer Grosstadt dargestellt am Beispiel von Berlin (West). PhD Thesis, Technische Universität (1974). [In German].Kołodziejek, J., Patykowski, J. & Kołodziejek, R. Distribution, frequency and host patterns of European mistletoe (Viscum album subsp. album) in the major city of Lodz Poland. Biol. 68, 55–64 (2013).
    Google Scholar 
    Caudullo, G., Welk, E. & San-Miguel-Ayanz, J. Chorological maps for the main European woody species. Data Brief 12, 662–666 (2017).PubMed 
    PubMed Central 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    O’Donnell, M. S. & Ignizio, D. A. Bioclimatic predictors for supporting ecological applications in the conterminous United States. US Geol. Surv. Data Ser. 691, 4–9 (2012).
    Google Scholar 
    Luther, P., Becker, H. & Leroi, R. Die Mistel: Botanik, Lektine, medizinische Anwendung. Springer (1987).Gazol, A. et al. Distinct effects of climate warming on populations of silver fir (Abies alba) across Europe. J. Biogeogr. 42, 1150–1162 (2015).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Tikkanen, O. P. et al. Freezing tolerance of seeds can explain differences in the distribution of two widespread mistletoe subspecies in Europe. For. Ecol. Manag. 482, 118806 (2021).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Pilichowski, S. et al. Wpływ Viscum album ssp. austriacum (Wiesb.) Vollm. na przyrost radialny Pinus sylvestris L. Sylwan 162, 452–459 (2018) ([In Polish]).
    Google Scholar 
    Szmidla, H., Tkaczyk, M., Plewa, R., Tarwacki, G. & Sierota, Z. Impact of common mistletoe (Viscum album L.) on scots pine forests—A call for action. Forests 10, 847 (2019).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wójcik, R. & Kędziora, W. Abundance of Viscum in central Poland: Results from a large-scale mistletoe inventory. Environ. Sci. Proc. 3, 98 (2020).
    Google Scholar 
    Sangüesa-Barreda, G., Linares, J. C. & Camarero, J. J. Drought and mistletoe reduce growth and water-use efficiency of Scots pine. For. Ecol. Manag. 296, 64–73 (2013).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Mathiasen, R. L., Nickrent, D. L., Shaw, D. C. & Watson, D. M. Mistletoes: Pathology, systematics, ecology, and management. Plant Dis. 92, 988–1006 (2008).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Catal, Y. & Carus, S. Effect of pine mistletoe on radial growth of crimean pine (Pinus nigra) in Turkey. J. Environ. Biol. 32, 263 (2011).PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Skre, O. High temperature demands for growth and development in Norway Spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] in Scandinavia. Meld Nor Landbrukshøgsk 51, 1–29 (1971).
    Google Scholar 
    Utaaker, K. A temperature-growth index—the respiration equivalent—used in climatic studies on the meso-scale in Norway. Agric. Meteorol. 5, 351–359 (1968).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Iversen, J. Viscum, Hedera and Ilex as climate indicators: A contribution to the study of the post-glacial temperature climate. Geol. fören. Stockh. förh. 66, 463–483 (1944).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Briggs, J. Mistletoe, Viscum album (Santalaceae), in Britain and Ireland; a discussion and review of current status and trends. Brit. Ir. Bot. 3, 419–454 (2021).
    Google Scholar  More

  • in

    Response of soil viral communities to land use changes

    Characteristics of LVD dataset and assembled vOTUsThe land use virome dataset LVD was derived from 2.6 billion paired clean reads of sequences across 50 viromes of 25 samples with five types of land uses (Supplementary Data 2). A total of 6,442,065 contigs ( >1500 bp) were yielded, of which 764,466 (11.8%) contigs were identified as putative viral genomes through VIBRANT. Subsequently, putative false positive viral genomes were removed (see Methods section), and 27,951 and 48,936 bona fide viral genomes were retained from the 25 intracellular VLPs (iVLPs) and 25 extracellular VLPs (eVLPs) viromes, respectively. These genomes were clustered into 25,941 and 45,152 vOTUs for iVLPs and eVLPs viromes, respectively, in which the iVLPs and eVLPs viromes shared 11,467 (19.2%) vOTUs. Subsequently, they were merged and dereplicated, resulting in 59,626 vOTUs (Supplementary Data 3) for the following analysis. A total of 8112 (13.6%) vOTUs genomes were classified as complete, in which the median length of all and circular vOTUs were 25,183 bp and 45,511 bp, respectively (Supplementary Fig. 4).To explore the taxonomic affiliation of vOTUs in family and genus-level, a gene-sharing network consist of 59,626 vOTUs genomes from this study and 3502 reference phage genomes (from NCBI Viral RefSeq version 201) revealed 6009 VCs comprising of 37,224 vOTUs, of which 34,417 vOTUs were from LVD, besides 2794 singletons (2653 from LVD dataset), 16,056 outliers (15,833 from LVD) and 8492 overlaps (8061 from LVD) were detected (Supplementary Data 4). Of these, only 157 VCs contained genomes from both the RefSeq and LVD dataset (1864 viral genomes) (Supplementary Data 4). Most of VCs (1837, 30.4%) included only two members.At the family level, most of vOTUs were classified into Siphoviridae (712 by vConTACT2 and 29,671 (50.9%) by Demovir, tailed dsDNA), Podoviridae (610 by vConTACT2 and 9923 (17.6 %) by Demovir, tailed dsDNA), Myoviridae (485 by vConTACT2 and 5445 (9.9%) by Demovir, tailed dsDNA), Tectiviridae (50 by vConTACT2 and 10 (0.10%) by Demovir, non-tailed dsDNA) (Fig. 1). Besides, the Eukaryotic viruses Herpesviridae (159 by Demovir, 0.26%, dsDNA), Phycodnaviridae (120 (0.20%) by Demovir, dsDNA); the Virophage Family Lavidaviridae (15 (0.03%) by Demovir) were detected as well, but a majority of vOTUs were unclassified in genus-level.Fig. 1: The taxonomic assignment of LVD.Pie charts showing the affiliation of 56,870 vOTUs at family level assigned by script Demovir (a). and the affiliation of 1864 vOTUs at family level assigned by package vConTACT2 (b). Source data are provided in the Source Data file.Full size imageViral community structures differ across land use typesBray–Curtis dissimilarity of viral communities (median 0.9951) showed strong heterogeneity of viral communities among different sites (Fig. 2a). While, the Bray–Curtis dissimilarity (median: 0.5109) between paired viral communities of iVLPs and eVLPs from each site have a significant lower heterogeneity than inter-sites (Wilcox.test, p  0.05; Fig. 2b). Therefore, the paired iVLPs and eVLPs viromes from each site were merged for subsequently viral community analysis.Fig. 2: The macrodiversity of soil viral communities.a Boxplot showing Bray–Curtis dissimilarity of viral communities of intra-sites (between the corresponding community of iVLPs and eVLPs, n = 25) and inter-sites (between different sample sites, n = 300). The minima, maxima, center, bounds of box and whiskers in boxplots from bottom to top represented percentile 0, 10, 25, 50, 75, 90, and 100, respectively, the difference between different zones was tested using the two-sided Wilcox.test, ****p  More

  • in

    Factors determining the dorsal coloration pattern of aposematic salamanders

    Dobzhansky, T. Geographical variation in lady-beetles. Am. Nat. 67, 97–126 (1933).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Jablonski, N. G. & Chaplin, G. Colloquium paper: human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107, 8962–8968 (2010).ADS 
    CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wallace, A. R. The colors of animals and plants. Am. Nat. 11, 641–662. https://doi.org/10.1086/271979 (1877).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Cuthill, I. C. et al. The biology of color. Science 357, eaan0221 (2017).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Branham, M. A. & Wenzel, J. W. The origin of photic behavior and the evolution of sexual communication in fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Cladistics 19, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0748-3007(02)00131-7 (2003).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Maan, M. E. & Cummings, M. E. Female preferences for aposematic signal components in a polymorphic poison frog. Evolution 62, 2334–2345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00454.x (2008).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Poulton, E. B. The Colours of Animals: Their Meaning and Use, Especially Considered in the Case of Insects (D. Appleton, 1890).
    Google Scholar 
    Ruxton, G. D., Sherratt, T. N. & Michael, P. Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry (Oxford University Press, 2004).Book 

    Google Scholar 
    Mappes, J., Marples, N. & Endler, J. A. The complex business of survival by aposematism. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20, 598–603 (2005).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Joron, M. & Mallet, J. L. Diversity in mimicry: paradox or paradigm?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13, 461–466 (1998).CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Summers, R. W. et al. An experimental study of the effects of predation on the breeding productivity of capercaillie and black grouse. J. Appl. Ecol. 41, 513–525 (2004).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Nokelainen, O., Hegna, R. H., Reudler, J. H., Lindstedt, C. & Mappes, J. Trade-off between warning signal efficacy and mating success in the wood tiger moth. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 279, 257–265 (2012).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Ronka, K. et al. Geographic mosaic of selection by avian predators on hindwing warning colour in a polymorphic aposematic moth. Ecol. Lett. 23, 1654–1663. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13597 (2020).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Abram, P. K. et al. An insect with selective control of egg coloration. Curr. Biol. 25, 2007–2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.010 (2015).CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Briolat, E. S. et al. Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm?. Biol. Rev. 94, 388–414. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12460 (2019).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Frost-Mason, S. K. & Mason, K. A. What insights into vertebrate pigmentation has the axolotl model system provided?. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 40, 685–693 (1996).CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Stückler, S., Cloer, S., Hödl, W. & Preininger, D. Carotenoid intake during early life mediates ontogenetic colour shifts and dynamic colour change during adulthood. Anim. Behav. 187, 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.03.007 (2022).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Benito, M. M., Gonzalez-Solis, J. & Becker, P. H. Carotenoid supplementation and sex-specific trade-offs between colouration and condition in common tern chicks. J. Comp. Physiol. B 181, 539–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00360-010-0537-z (2011).CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Stuckert, A. M. M. et al. Variation in pigmentation gene expression is associated with distinct aposematic color morphs in the poison frog Dendrobates auratus. BMC Evol. Biol. 19, 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-019-1410-7 (2019).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Ohsaki, N. A common mechanism explaining the evolution of female-limited and both-sex Batesian mimicry in butterflies. J. Anim. Ecol. 74, 728–734 (2005).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Grill, C. P. & Moore, A. J. Effects of a larval antipredator response and larval diet on adult phenotype in an aposematic ladybird beetle. Oecologia 114, 274–282 (1998).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Friman, V. P., Lindstedt, C., Hiltunen, T., Laakso, J. & Mappes, J. Predation on multiple trophic levels shapes the evolution of pathogen virulence. PLoS ONE 4, e6761 (2009).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Rojas, B. Behavioural, ecological, and evolutionary aspects of diversity in frog colour patterns. Biol. Rev. 92, 1059–1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12269 (2017).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Hegna, R. H., Saporito, R. A. & Donnelly, M. A. Not all colors are equal: predation and color polytypism in the aposematic poison frog Oophaga pumilio. Evol. Ecol. 27, 831–845 (2013).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Pizzigalli, C. et al. Eco-geographical determinants of the evolution of ornamentation in vipers. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 130, 345–358 (2020).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Nielsen, M. E. & Mappes, J. Out in the open: behavior’s effect on predation risk and thermoregulation by aposematic caterpillars. Behav. Ecol. 31, 1031–1039 (2020).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Lindstedt, C., Suisto, K., Burdfield-Steel, E., Winters, A. E. & Mappes, J. Defense against predators incurs high reproductive costs for the aposematic moth Arctia plantaginis. Behav. Ecol. 31, 844–850. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/araa033 (2020).Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 
    Freeborn, L. R. The Genetic, Cellular, and Evolutionary Basis of Skin Coloration in the Highly Polymorphic Poison Frog, Oophaga pumilio (University of Pittsburgh, 2021).
    Google Scholar 
    Garcia, T. S., Straus, R. & Sih, A. Temperature and ontogenetic effects on color change in the larval salamander species Ambystoma barbouri and Ambystoma texanum. Can. J. Zool. 81, 710–715. https://doi.org/10.1139/z03-036 (2003).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Caspers, B. A. et al. Developmental costs of yellow colouration in fire salamanders and experiments to test the efficiency of yellow as a warning colouration. Amphibia-Reptilia 41, 373–385. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685381-bja10006 (2020).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wells, K. D. The Ecology and Behaviour of Amphibians (The University of Chicago Press, 2007).Book 

    Google Scholar 
    Balogova, M., Kyselova, M. & Uhrin, M. Changes in dorsal spot pattern in adult Salamandra salamandra (LINNAEUS, 1758). Herpetozoa 28, 167–171 (2016).
    Google Scholar 
    Brejcha, J. et al. Variability of colour pattern and genetic diversity of Salamandra salamandra (Caudata: Salamandridae) in the Czech Republic. J. Vertebr. Biol. https://doi.org/10.25225/jvb.21016 (2021).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Romeo, G., Giovine, G., Ficetola, G. F. & Manenti, R. Development of the fire salamander larvae at the altitudinal limit in Lombardy (north-western Italy): effect of two cohorts occurrence on intraspecific aggression. North-West J. Zool. 11, 234–240 (2015).
    Google Scholar 
    Manenti, R. & Ficetola, G. F. Salamanders breeding in subterranean habitats: local adaptations or behavioural plasticity?. J. Zool. 289, 182–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2012.00976.x (2013).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Manenti, R., Conti, A. & Pennati, R. Fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) males’ activity during breeding season: effects of microhabitat features and body size. Acta Herpetol. 12, 29–36 (2017).
    Google Scholar 
    Weitere, M., Tautz, D., Neumann, D. & Steinfartz, S. Adaptive divergence vs. environmental plasticity: tracing local genetic adaptation of metamorphosis traits in salamanders. Mol. Ecol. 13, 1665–1677. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02155.x (2004).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Manenti, R., Denoel, M. & Ficetola, G. F. Foraging plasticity favours adaptation to new habitats in fire salamanders. Anim. Behav. 86, 375–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.05.028 (2013).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Fernandez-Conradi, P., Mocellin, L., Desfossez, E. & Rasmann, S. Seasonal changes in arthropod diversity patterns along an Alpine elevation gradient. Ecol. Entomol. 45(5), 1035–1043 (2020).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Roslin, T. et al. Higher predation risk for insect prey at low latitudes and elevations. Science 356, 742–744. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaj1631 (2017).ADS 
    CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Ficetola, G. F., Manenti, R., De Bernardi, F. & Padoa-Schioppa, E. Can patterns of spatial autocorrelation reveal population processes? An analysis with the fire salamander. Ecography 35, 693–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2011.06483.x (2012).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Maiorano, L., Montemaggiori, A., Ficetola, G. F., O’Connor, L. & Thuiller, W. Tetra-EU 1.0: a species-level trophic meta-web of European tetrapods. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 29, 1452–1457 (2020).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Caldonazzi, M., Nistri, A. & Tripepi, S. in Amphibia Vol. XLII (eds B. Lanza et al.) 221–227 (2007).Morales-Castilla, I., Matias, M. G., Gravel, D. & Araújo, M. B. Inferring biotic interactions from proxies. Trends Ecol. Evol. 30, 347–356 (2015).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Bernini, F. et al. Atlante degli Anfibi e dei Rettili della Lombardia (Provincia di Cremona, 2004).Peñalver-Alcázar, M., Galán, P. & Aragón, P. Assessing Rensch’s rule in a newt: roles of primary productivity and conspecific density in interpopulation variation of sexual size dimorphism. J. Biogeogr. 46, 2558–2569. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.13680 (2019).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Limongi, L., Ficetola, G. F., Romeo, G. & Manenti, R. Environmental factors determining growth of salamander larvae: a field study. Curr. Zool. 61, 421–427. https://doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/61.3.421 (2015).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Czeczuga, B. Some carotenoids in Chironomus annularius Meig. larvae (Diptera: Chironomidae). Hydrobiologia 36, 353–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00039794 (1970).CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B. & Walker, S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J. Stat. Softw. 67, 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01 (2015).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B. & Christensen, R. H. B. lmerTest package: tests in linear mixed effects models. J. Stat. Softw. 82, 1–26 (2017).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    visreg: Visualization of regression models. R package version 2.2-0. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=visreg (2015).Preißler, K. et al. More yellow more toxic? Sex rather than alkaloid content is correlated with yellow coloration in the fire salamander. J. Zool. 308, 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12676 (2019).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kikuchi, D. W., Herberstein, M. E., Barfield, M., Holt, R. D. & Mappes, J. Why aren’t warning signals everywhere? On the prevalence of aposematism and mimicry in communities. Biol. Rev. 96, 2446–2460 (2021).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Abd El-Wakeil, K. F. Trophic structure of macro- and meso-invertebrates in Japanese coniferous forest: carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes analyses. Biochem. Systematics Ecol. 37, 317–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2009.05.008 (2009).CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Frelich, L. E. et al. Trophic cascades, invasive species and body-size hierarchies interactively modulate climate change responses of ecotonal temperate-boreal forest. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 367, 2955–2961. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0235 (2012).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Umbers, K. D. L., Silla, A. J., Bailey, J. A., Shaw, A. K. & Byrne, P. G. Dietary carotenoids change the colour of Southern corroboree frogs. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 119, 436–444. https://doi.org/10.1111/bij.12818 (2016).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Balogova, M. & Uhrin, M. Sex-biased dorsal spotted patterns in the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra). Salamandra 51, 12–18 (2015).
    Google Scholar 
    Arenas, L. M. & Stevens, M. Diversity in warning coloration is easily recognized by avian predators. J. Evol. Biol. 30, 1288–1302. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.13074 (2017).CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 
    Gilby, B. L., Burfeind, D. D. & Tibbetts, I. R. Better red than dead? Potential aposematism in a harpacticoid copepod, Metis holothuriae. Mar. Environ. Res. 74, 73–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2011.12.001 (2012).CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Przeczek, K., Mueller, C. & Vamosi, S. M. The evolution of aposematism is accompanied by increased diversification. Integr. Zool. 3, 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-4877.2008.00091.x (2008).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Moore, M. P. & Martin, R. A. On the evolution of carry-over effects. J Anim. Ecol. 88, 1832–1844. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13081 (2019).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Raffaëlli, J. Les Urodeles du monde (Penclen Edition, 2007).Velo-Anton, G., Zamudio, K. R. & Cordero-Rivera, A. Genetic drift and rapid evolution of viviparity in insular fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). Heredity 108, 410–418. https://doi.org/10.1038/Hdy.2011.91 (2012).CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Rodriguez, A. et al. Inferring the shallow phylogeny of true salamanders (Salamandra) by multiple phylogenomic approaches. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 115, 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2017.07.009 (2017).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Speed, M. P. & Ruxton, G. D. Aposematism: what should our starting point be?. Proc. Biol. Sci. 272, 431–438. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.2968 (2005).Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 
    Tarvin, R. D., Powell, E. A., Santos, J. C., Ron, S. R. & Cannatella, D. C. The birth of aposematism: high phenotypic divergence and low genetic diversity in a young clade of poison frogs. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 109, 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2016.12.035 (2017).Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 
    Jusczcyk, W. & Zakrzewski, M. External morphology of larval stages of the spotted salamander Salamandra salamandra (L.). Acta Biol. Crac. 23, 127–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12676 (1981).Article 

    Google Scholar  More

  • in

    New catalogue of Earth’s ecosystems

    Keith, D. A. et al. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05318-4 (2022).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Domesday Book, or, The Great Survey of England of William the Conqueror A.D. MLXXXVI (Ordnance Survey Office, 1862).McMahon, G. et al. Environ. Manage. 28, 293–316 (2001).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Spalding, M. D. et al. BioScience 57, 573–583 (2007).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Holdridge, L. R. Science 105, 367–368 (1947).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Köppen, W. in Handbuch der Klimatologie (eds Köppen, W. & Geiger, G. C.) 1–44 (Gebrüder Borntraeger, 1936).
    Google Scholar 
    Whittaker, R. H. Communities and Ecosystems (Macmillan, 1975).
    Google Scholar 
    Keddy, P. A. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9, 231–234 (1994).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    United Nations. Convention on Biological Diversity (UN, 1992).
    Google Scholar 
    MacArthur, R. H. Geographical Ecology: Patterns in the Distribution of Species (Princeton Univ. Press, 1972).
    Google Scholar 
    Schoener, T. W. in Community Ecology (eds Diamond, J. D. & Case, T. ) 467–479 (Harper & Row, 1986).
    Google Scholar 
    Winemiller, K. O., Fitzgerald, D. B., Bower, L. M. & Pianka, E. R. Ecol. Lett. 18, 737–751 (2015).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar  More

  • in

    Coral community data Heron Island Great Barrier Reef 1962–2016

    Study site and field data collectionPermanent 1 m2 photoquadrats were established on Heron Reef in 1962/63, using 9 mm diameter mild steel (rebar) pegs, which were replaced over time. From the 1990’s, replacement pegs were stainless steel for greater longevity. Four sites were established, the protected (south) crest, inner flat, exposed (north) crest and exposed pools. Co-ordinates for each site are presented in Table 1, the layout shown in Fig. 2, and sites have been well described previously5,6. At each census, a 1 m2 frame divided into a 5 × 5 grid using string was placed over the pegs, and the quadrat photographed from directly above at low tide. From 1963 until 2003, a 35 mm camera and colour slide film were used. The camera was attached to a tripod affixed to the 1 m2 frame, and captured around 2/3 of the quadrat. The frame (and camera) were then rotated 180 degrees to capture the remainder of the quadrat. After 2003, a hand-held digital camera was used, with the entire quadrat being captured in a single image. Concurrent with each census, mud maps of each quadrat were hand drawn in the field, and all colonies identified in situ by someone with expertise in coral taxonomy.Table 1 Coordinates of the study sites on Heron Island Reef (WGS84).Full size tableFig. 2Quadrat layouts for each of the four sites respectively, noting that the north crest and north ridge have been treated as a single north crest site in previous publications. Underlining indicates original 1962/63 quadrats. Other quadrats were added in or after 2008, as indicated in the text. Contiguous quadrats are pictured bordering each other. Spacing between separate quadrats or groups of quadrats is not shown to scale. Note that up until 2005, NRNW was known as NR. The acronyms in each quadrat represent its name.Full size imageAt the protected (south) crest, a set of six contiguous quadrats were established in 1963 in a 2 × 3 arrangement parallel to the waterline, and about 420 m southeast of the island. This site is exposed at low tide, and was photographed once all water had drained off it. Images of quadrats A, C & E (the shoreward row) from 1963 to 2012 have been fully processed, and the data have been through QA/QC. Data after 2012 exist as images only. These quadrats form the basis of previous analyses1,4,5,6 for this site. Photographs are available for quadrats B, D & F, but apart from 2003–2010, have not been processed. In 2010, an additional two quadrats were established either side of the original six, leading to a 2 × 5 arrangement. Again, only imagery is available for these additional quadrats.At the inner flat, two pairs of contiguous quadrats were established in 1962, 44 m apart, about 70 m south of the island. This site is covered by ~10 cm of water at low tide, so could only be photographed on a still day. Imagery for this site is only available to 2012, after which the marker stakes appear to have been removed in a cleanup of the area. Images for one quadrat in each pair have been processed, but have not been subject to full QA/QC.At the exposed (north) crest main site, a set of four contiguous quadrats was established about 1100 m northeast of the island in 1963. An additional single quadrat (north ridge) was established 326 m to the east. Images from 1963 to 2012 have been fully processed, and the data have been through QA/QC. Data after 2012 exist as images only. In 2005, the single north ridge quadrat was expanded to 4 m2, and in 2008, both subsites were expanded to six quadrats in a 2 × 3 arrangement. These additional quadrats have been digitised up to 2012, but have not been through full QA/QC.The exposed pools are two individual quadrats about 5 m apart about 30 m north of the eastern (north ridge) exposed crest site. These are on the edge of a natural pool, and range from ~5–50 cm deep at low tide, and so could only be photographed on a calm day. Imagery for this site is only available until 2005, after which the marker stakes could not be relocated. Images from 1963 to 1998 have been processed, but have not been through full QA/QC.Retrieval of coral composition data from the photoquadratsProcessing of the images involved scanning the colour slides to produce digital images, and then orthorectifying each image to a 1 m2 basemap in ArcGIS (ESRI Ltd). The corners of the frame, and the holes for the string grid, were used as control points for the orthorectification. For images that originated as colour slides, each half of the quadrat was individually orthorectified to the same basemap, producing a single image of the entire quadrat (see Fig. 3). While contiguous quadrats were orthorectified individually, they were done so against a basemap containing all quadrats in the group, meaning that the resulting images can be easily merged to create a single image of the group. The outlines of all visible coral colonies ( >~1 cm2), and other benthic organisms such as algae and clams, were then digitised in ArcGIS to create a single shapefile for each quadrat for each year. Each colony was represented as an individual feature within the shapefile, and was assigned a unique colony number and species based on the mud maps drawn in the field. Colony numbers were consistent across years, allowing individual colonies to be tracked over time. If a colony underwent fission, the original colony number was retained for each, with the addition of a unique identifier after a decimal point. For example, if colony 35 split in two, the resultant colonies were identified as 35.1 and 35.2. If 35.2 later split again, the resultant colonies were identified as 35.2.1 and 35.2.2. If the colony overlapped the edge of the quadrat, only the area within the quadrat was digitised, and a flag was applied to indicate that only part of the colony was included (edgestatus = 1 in the data). Upon completion of digitisation, ArcGIS was used to calculate the area and perimeter of all colonies. While multiple census were conducted in 1963, 1971 and 1983, only a single census in each year has been processed. There are currently no plans to undertake further digitisation or QA/QC of this data set.Fig. 3Example orthorectified and stitched (prior to 2001) images from the NCNE quadrat, showing the effects of a cyclone that removed all colonies in 1972, and slow recovery over subsequent decades.Full size image More

  • in

    Ecological risk and health risk analysis of soil potentially toxic elements from oil production plants in central China

    Description of PTEsThe descriptive statistics of the contents of soil PTEs in the study area were shown in Table 1. From Table 1, the mean contents of As and Ni in the oil-affected soils exceeded their corresponding risk screening values33, which may damage the soil ecological environment and affect crop growth. Compared with the secondary standard of soil environmental quality34, the mean contents of As, Cu and Zn were all lower than their corresponding Grade II standard values, but the mean contents of Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb in the oil-affected soils were 1.07, 7.46, 7.14 and 1.36 times of their standard values. In contrast with the background value of Hubei province35, except Mn, the mean contents of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Ba in the oil-affected soils all exceeded their background values. Meanwhile, the variation coefficient of Cr (1.41) was greater than 1. In general, the soil Cd concentration in the study area was higher than that around Gudao Town, a typical oil-producing region of the Shengli Oilfield in the Yellow River Delta, China12, and from Yellow River Delta, a traditional oil field in China9, but was lower than that around two crude oil flow stations in the Niger Delta, Nigeria36. The concentrations of other PTEs were higher than the corresponding element concentrations, detected in the soil around Gudao Town, a typical oil-producing region of the Shengli Oilfield in the Yellow River Delta, China12, from Yellow River Delta, a traditional oil field in China9, and around two crude oil flow stations in the Niger Delta, Nigeria36. The above analysis exhibited that PTEs in the oil-affected soils had a certain degree of accumulation and may be affected by human activities.Table 1 Statistical characteristics for potential toxic elements in in the study area (mg·kg−1).Full size tableLevels of PTEs enrichment and pollutionThe EF and PLI of soil PTEs in the study area were calculated to evaluate the pollution degree of soil PTEs. The calculation results of EF and PLI were shown in Fig. 2 and Table S4. From Fig. 2, the mean EF values of PTEs were showed as Pb  > Cr  > Ni  > As  > Cd  > Zn  > Cu  > Ba. The mean EFs of all PTEs were greater than 1. Among them, the average EF of Cu, Zn and Ba was between 1 and 2, which was slightly enriched. And As (2.18) and Cd (2.12) were moderately enriched. In particular, the average EF values of Cr, Ni and Pb were 14.23, 8.69 and 15.45, respectively, reaching a significant enrichment level, and all samples of Cr, Ni and Pb were at moderate or above enrichment, of which 10% of the Cr samples were extreme pollution, 85% of Cr samples, 95% of Ni and 5% of Pb (Table S4) were significantly enriched. These proved that these PTEs were generally enriched in the study area, especially Cr, Ni and Pb.Figure 2The map of enrichment factor and contamination factor of PTEs in the study area.Full size imageExcept Mn, the average CF values of other PTEs were all  > 1 (Fig. 2), indicating that the accumulation of Mn in the study area was relatively light, and there was no obvious Mn pollution. The CF values of all samples of As, Cr, Ni and Pb, 80% of Cd samples, 75% of Cu samples, 30% of Mn samples, 65% of Zn samples and 75% of Ba samples (Table S4) were higher than 1. And the mean CF values of Cr, Ni and Pb were 14.21, 7.58 and 12.73, respectively, certifying that the pollution of Cr, Ni and Pb in the study area was considerably serious. PLI was calculated based on the CF value of PTEs, and the results were shown in Fig. 2. The average value of PLI was 2.62, indicating that the soil PTEs in the study area were seriously polluted.Spatial distribution of soil PTEs in the study areaGeostatistical analysis was utilized to do ordinary Kriging interpolation of the PTEs in the study area, the results were shown in Fig. 3. As shown in Fig. 3, the spatial distribution of As, Cr, Ni, Zn and Ba was relatively consistent, and their hot spots were concentrated in the southeast, northwest, and central and eastern parts of the study area where oil wells were distributed. The spatial distribution of Cr and Ni exhibited that there were large-scale hotspots near the oil wells, and the content of Cr and Ni in these hotspots was much higher than second-level environmental quality standards of China, which proved that the content of soil Cr and Ni was significantly affected by the oil production activities of the oil production plant. There were crude oil leaks in B and C, and the contents of Zn and Ba in the vicinity of these two oil wells were relatively high, indicating that soil Zn and Ba in this area may be affected by the crude oil leakage, resulting in a certain degree of accumulation in the soil. The area with the second highest As content mainly resided in the middle of the study area. According to the survey, the herbicides were sprayed every year around the H oil well in the middle of the study area, indicating that the accumulation of As in the soil was not only related to oil extraction activities, but also to the use of pesticides (contains copper arsenate, sodium arsenate, etc.)10, 14. In addition, the hot spots of spatial distribution of Pb, Cd and Mn were concentrated in the southeast, and Cu was mainly concentrated in the southeast and midwest. As analyzed above, in addition to Mn, the PTEs Pb, Cd and Cu all have a certain degree of accumulation. And the investigation found that there were many petroleum machinery manufacturing plants in the central and eastern part of the study area, therefore, the accumulation of Pb, Cd and Cu in the soil may be related to factors such as petroleum extraction, crude oil leakage and machinery manufacturing. The above analysis indicated that the influence of human activities is evident on the distribution of soil PTEs3, 23.Figure 3spatial distribution map of soil PTEs in the study area.Full size imagePotential ecological risk assessmentThe potential ecological risk assessment model after adjusting the threshold was used to evaluate the PER of the oil production plant. The individual potential ecological risk of PTEs was shown in Table 2. From Table 2, the average ({E}_{r}^{i}) values of PTEs were Cr  > Pb  > Cd  > Ni  > As  > Cu  > Zn  > Mn. The average ({E}_{r}^{i}) values of Cr and Pb were 79.62 and 63.64, respectively, reaching a relatively high level of potential ecological risk; the average ({E}_{r}^{i}) values of Cd and Ni were 55.95 and 37.91, respectively, which were at medium potential ecological risk level; the average ({E}_{r}^{i}) values of other PTEs were all lower than 30, with minor potential ecological risk. Specifically, all samples of Cu, Mn and Zn were at slight potential ecological risk level; 5% of As samples, 80% of Cd, 85% of Cr, 80% of Ni and 100% of Pb (Table S5) were at medium and above potential ecological risk. In particular, the potential ecological risks of 35% of Cd samples, 10% of Cr samples, 5% of Ni samples and 80% of Pb samples (Table S5) were relatively high, 10% Cd samples reached high potential ecological risk level, and 10% Cr samples had extremely high potential ecological risk. In summary, Geostatistical analysis shows that the hotspot distribution of all PTEs in the study area is almost related to the distribution of oil wells. In addition, the hotspot distribution of PTEs may also be related to factors such as agricultural and industrial activities3. The average value of PER in the study area was 265.08, and the proportions of the three risk levels of medium, slightly high and high were 5%, 75% and 20%, respectively (Table S5). It proved that the study area was at a higher potential ecological risk. Among them, the PER values of samples A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I and J (Table 2) were all greater than 280, reaching fairly high ecological risk.Table 2 Single ecological risk index and potential ecological risk of soil PTEs in study area.Full size tableHuman health risk assessmentThe non-carcinogenic risk assessment of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn and Ba in the soils of the study area was carried out, and the assessment results were shown in Table 3. The THI values of children and adults under the three exposure routes of soil PTEs in the study area were 7.31 and 1.03, respectively, and the THI values were all  > 1, which indicated that soil PTEs around the oil production plants posed significant non-carcinogenic health risks to children and adults. The non-carcinogenic hazardous quotient (HQ) of children and adults in Table 3 revealed that the HQ of all PTEs for adults under each exposure route was less than 1, while the HQ of Cr and Pb for children under the oral intake route was greater than 1, which were 4.91 and 1.17, respectively. For HQ with different exposure routes of the same PTE, each soil PTE presented the risk of oral ingestion  > oral and nasal inhalation risk  > skin contact risk. The result was in agreement with the reports14, 37. Therefore, oral intake was the main exposure route of non-carcinogenic risk, and oral intake of Cr and Pb caused serious non-carcinogenic risk to children. Statistical analysis of HI for soil PTEs in the study area showed that the HI values of PTEs for children were significantly higher than those of adults, and the HI values of PTEs in children and adults were all Cr  > Pb  >   > As  > Ni  > Mn  > Ba  > Cu  > Zn  > Cd. Among them, the HI values of all PTEs for adults were less than 1, indicating that the non-carcinogenic risks caused by a single PTE did not have a significant impact on adults; while the HI values of Cr and Pb for children were 4.93 and 1.17 greater than 1, indicating that they have caused serious non-carcinogenic risk to local children. In addition, the HI values of As and Ni for children and the HI values of As, Cr and Pb for adults were all greater than 0.1, which requires attention. In summary, children suffered from significant non-carcinogenic risk, and adults suffered from minor non-carcinogenic risk in the study area; soil Cr and Pb were the most important non-carcinogenic risk factors for children and adults in the study area.Table 3 Non-cancer and cancer risk assessment of adults and children under different exposure routes.Full size tableIn this study, soil As, Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb from the study area were assessed for carcinogenic risk, and the results were shown in Table 3. The TCRI of children and adults under the three exposure routes of these five PTEs were 9.44E−04 and 5.75E−04, respectively, indicating that soil PTEs around the oil production plants have caused serious carcinogenic risk to local children and adults. The CR values of children and adults showed that the CR values of Cr (6.33E−04) and Ni (2.64E−04) for children, and Cr (3.87E−04) and Ni (1.49E−04) for adults were all greater than 10–4. In addition, As, Cr and Cd all presented oral intake risk  > oronasal inhalation risk  > skin contact risk. In conclusion, Cr and Ni caused serious carcinogenic risk for children and adults in the study area, and oral intake was also the primary way of carcinogenic risk. The CRI statistics of adults and children exhibited that the CRI values of all PTEs were lower than those of children. The CRI values of the PTEs in adults and children under the three exposure routes were Cr  > Ni  >   > As  > Pb  >   > Cd. Among them, the CRI values of Cr and Ni in children and adults by oral intake were both greater than 10–4, showing a strong carcinogenic risk. It is noteworthy that the assessment based on total concentrations of PTEs in soil might overestimate potential health risks38. The above analysis revealed that both children and adults in the study area suffered from serious carcinogenic risks, and Cr and Ni were the chiefly carcinogenic risk factors. More

  • in

    Early-season plant-to-plant spatial uniformity can affect soybean yields

    Sites description and field operationsA total of six field studies were conducted in two different regions over two seasons. Four studies (two dryland and two irrigated) were in Kansas, United States (dryland: 39°4′30″ N, − 96°44′43″ W, irrigated: 39°4′25″N, − 96°43′12″ W) during the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons (hereafter referred to as USDry19, USIrr19, USDry20, and USIrr20 studies). The remaining two studies (dryland) were in Entre Rios, Argentina (31°50′49″ S; 60°32′16″ W) during the 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 growing seasons (hereafter referred to as Arg19 and Arg20 studies). The soils were Fluventic Hapludolls [silt loam, 40% sand, 13% clay, 47% silt, organic matter (OM) 1.7%, 7.7 pH, 31.1 ppm P (Bray−1)] at the US dryland studies, and Pachic Argiudolls [silty clay loam, 10.1% sand, 30.6% clay and 59.3% silt, OM 3.2%, 6.8 pH, 34.7 ppm P (Bray−1)] at the US irrigated studies. At the Argentinian studies soil was a Vertic Argiudoll in 2019 [silty clay loam to clay loam, 3.9% sand, 27.6% clay, 67.9% silt, OM 2.65%, 7.2 pH, 12.5 ppm P (Bray−1)] and an Acuic Argiudoll in 2020 [silt loam to silty-clay-loam, 5.6% sand, 28.6% clay, 65.8% silt, OM 3.33%].The US dryland and irrigated studies were sown on June 4, 2019, and May 20, 2020. In 2019, the dryland study was replanted on June 29 due to poor emergence after the first sowing. The studies in Argentina were sown on December 5 in 2018 and November 20 in 2019. At all six studies, plots were kept free of weeds, pests, and diseases through recommended chemical control.The genotypes used in the US were P40A47X (MG 4.0) and P39A58X (MG 3.9) (Corteva Agriscience, Johnston, IA, USA) in 2019 and 2020, respectively. Both varieties are tolerant to glyphosate and dicamba herbicides (RR2X) and have low lodging probability. For the northeast region of Kansas, recommended sowing dates range from May 15 to June 15 along with MG 421. In addition, recommended seeding rates are between 270 and 355 thousand seeds ha−1 for low-yielding environments and 190 to 285 thousand seeds ha−1 for medium- and high-yielding environments13. In Argentina, the genotype AW5815IPRO (MG 5.8, Bayer, Leverkusen, Germany) was used both in 2020 and 2021, it is tolerant to glyphosate and sulfonylureas, and has low lodging probability. Recommended sowing dates for Entre Rios considering soybeans as a single crop range from October 20 to December 10, and MG usually range from 4 to 6; lastly, seeding rate recommendations are between 200 and 250 thousand seeds ha−1 in the region22.Study designThe studies carried out in the US were arranged as a split plot design with three replicates in both 2019 and 2020. In 2019, the main plot treatment factor was planter type with two levels [John Deere (Moline, Illinois, US) Max Emerge planter (ME, 12 rows), and John Deere Exact Emerge Planter (EE, 16 rows)], and the split-plot treatment factor was seeding rate with two levels (160 and 321 thousand seeds ha−1). In 2020 the main plot treatment factor was also planter type with two levels (ME and EE), and the split-plot treatment factor was seeding rate with four levels (160, 215, 270 and 321 thousand seeds ha−1). Planting speed was 7 km h−1 in both studies and years, plots were 24 and 32 rows wide when planted with ME and EE, respectively, with 0.76 m row spacing. Plot length was 80 m in the dryland studies and 160 m in the irrigated studies. The studies in Argentina were arranged as a single replicate of each seeding rate (100, 230, 360 and 550 thousand seeds ha−1) in both years. Planting speed was 5.5 km h−1 in both years, and plots were 10 rows wide with 0.52 m row spacing and 350 m in length.All treatment factors in US studies were evaluated with the overall goal of producing substantial variation in the variable of interest, plant-to-plant spatial uniformity, rather than to make an inference of their effect on yield. The Argentinian studies were only used for selection of stand uniformity variables due to the single replicate. Plant spatial uniformity variables were first fitted using the data from US studies (details below), and then the best explanatory metrics were selected to re-fit the relationships combining both data sets from US and Argentina. Finally, sowing dates, maturity groups, and seeding rates evaluated in this study at both locations (Arg and US) were aligned with those recommended for each region.Data collection and spacing uniformity variablesTwo segments of 2 m in length were established early in the season inside each plot. At the V5 (US studies) and R1 (Arg studies) soybean development stage23, the cumulative distance of the plants within each segment was measured and then used to calculate multiple derived variables. Plant spacing (cm) was calculated as the average distance between neighboring plants. In addition, the distance from a plant to each neighboring plant was classified as shorter or longer than the plant spacing (named nearest and farthest neighbor distance, respectively). Achieved versus Target Evenness Index (ATEI, dimensionless) was calculated as the ratio between the observed plant spacing and the theoretical plant spacing (TPS, cm), where TPS is the expected plant spacing derived from a specific seeding rate and row width (Eq. 1).$$ATEI = frac{Spacing;(cm) }{{TPS;(cm)}}$$
    (1)
    The ATEI index was designed to account for the proximity of the observed plant spacing to the TPS. Values closer to 1 indicate that the plant spacing is close to the TPS and values that are below or above 1 indicate that the plant spacing is lower or higher than the TPS, respectively; thereby departing from an ideal plant spacing. Hence, ATEI values greater than 1 depict both (i) non-uniform plant-to-plant spacing distribution and (ii) plant densities below the target (seeding rate). To further understand the meaning of ATEI, the relative density (rd) was calculated as the ratio between plant density (based on the number of plants in the 2 m segment) and seeding rate.To account for the unevenness of distance from a plant to both neighboring plants within the row, we used the Evenness Index (EI, dimensionless), calculated as the ratio between the distance to the nearest neighbor (cm) and the plant spacing (cm) of a given plant (Eq. 2). The Evenness Index values range from 0 to 1, a value closer to 1 indicates that a plant is equidistantly spaced to both of its neighboring plants within the row, if zero then those plants are occupying the same position (as doubles). It is important to note that EI does not provide information on the spacing (in distance, cm) or how close the spacing is compared to the TPS, but only describes the unevenness distance of a plant to its neighboring plants within a row.$$Evenness ;Index; (EI) = frac{nearest; neighbor ;(cm)}{{Spacing; (cm)}}$$
    (2)
    In addition, the distance from a plant to its preceding neighboring plant, and the TPS were used to classify the position of each plant into one of eight classes (Fig. 1). Plants were classified in classes ranging from “double” (preceding plant distance  Double-skip) as a function of seeding rate, planter type and their interaction (fixed effects), and block nested in site-year (random effect) (Tables 1 and 2). Independent models for each of the 4 US studies were built assessing the effects of planter type, seeding rate, and their interaction (fixed effects), and seeding rate nested in planter type, and in block (random effects) on the same variables previously mentioned (Supplementary Table 1). The models were run using the lmer function from lme4 package in R (R Core Team, 2021). In addition, the US and Arg studies were combined to evaluate the effect of site-year on yield, plant density, and all stand uniformity variables (Supplementary Fig. 1) using the lm function from package stats. Means separation were performed using Fisher’s LSD (Least Significance Difference) test (alpha = 0.05) with emmeans function from package emmeans.Table 1 Effect of planter type, seeding rate, and their interaction on variables from plant position classification for all US studies. References: percentage of perfectly spaced plants (Perfect), percentage of plants misplaced by 66% (Mis 66), percentage of plants misplaced by 33% (Mis 33), percentage of double plants (Double), percentage of short skips plants (Short-skip), percentage of long skip plants (Long-skip), percentage of double skips plants (Double-skip), and percentage of greater than double skip plants ( > Double-skip).Full size tableTable 2 Effect of planter type, seeding rate, and their interaction on yield and stand uniformity variables for all US studies. References: Spacing between plants standard deviation (Spacing sd), achieved versus targeted evenness index mean and standard deviation (ATEI and ATEI sd, respectively), and evenness index mean and standard deviation (EI and EI sd, respectively).Full size tableCommunity-scale data from the four US studies were combined and fitted to bivariate linear regression models with yield as the response variable and each of the stand spatial uniformity variables as the explanatory variable. Significant models (alpha = 0.05) were further evaluated by calculating the coefficient of determination (R2) and root mean squared error (RMSE) (Fig. 2). Models with the lower RMSE and higher R2 were selected as those that best captured the effect of non-uniform stands on soybean yield. After variables were selected, both US and Arg data sets were combined and the linear regressions between the selected variables and yield were re-fitted to assess the consistency of the relationships when an independent data set was included. Community-scale yield from US and Arg studies was modelled as a function of the selected stand uniformity variable, country (US and Arg), and their interaction (fixed effects) (Fig. 3). The spatial uniformity metric showing the most consistent relationship for both US and Arg studies (i.e., non-significant interaction between stand uniformity metric and country), was selected to continue the analysis. The bivariate linear regression models were run with function lm.Figure 2Relationship between stand uniformity variables and soybean yield for US studies. ATEI mean and sd achieved versus targeted evenness index mean and standard deviation, EI mean and sd evenness index mean and standard deviation, Perfect percentage of perfectly spaced plants, R2 coefficient of determination, RMSE root mean square error. All stand uniformity variables presented a significant slope at alpha = 0.05.Full size imageFigure 3Relationship of spacing standard deviation (Spacing sd, cm) and achieved versus targeted evenness index standard deviation (ATEI sd) to soybean yield. Different colors and line types denote different countries (Argentina, Arg—full line, red points; United States, US—dashed line, blue points). R2 coefficient of determination, RMSE root mean square error.Full size imageDifferent environmental conditions and seeding rate levels may modify the effect of plant spatial uniformity on yield. To explore this, each of the studies from Arg and US were separated into low- (USDry19 and ArgDry20, mean of 2.7 Mg ha−1), medium- (USIrr19, USDry20 and ArgDry19, mean of 3.0 Mg ha−1), and high- (USIrr20, mean of 4.3 Mg ha−1) yield environments based on the effect of site-year on yield (Supplementary Fig. 1). Additionally, the tested seeding rates were separated in low ( 300 thousand seeds ha−1) levels based on the current optimal seeding rate for medium yielding environments (235 thousand seeds ha−1, 4 Mg ha−1)13 and the extreme values proposed by Suhre et al.11 (148 and 445 thousand seeds ha−1). This classification was used to model yield as a function of (i) the selected stand uniformity metric, yield environment, and their interaction, and (ii) the selected stand uniformity metric, seeding rate levels, and their interaction. These models were tested to obtain a robust conclusion on the overall effect of yield environment and seeding rate levels, and their interactions (all treated as fixed effects) with plant-to-plant spatial uniformity relative to the response variable, soybean yield. The Akaike information criteria (AIC) was used to compare the full (with interactions) relative to the reduced models (single effects).Ethics declarationsExperimental research and field studies on plants including the collection of plant material, complied with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation. More

  • in

    Marine subsidies produce cactus forests on desert islands

    Bartz, K. K. & Naiman, R. J. Effects of Salmon-Borne nutrients on riparian soils and vegetation in Southwest Alaska. Ecosystems 8, 529–545 (2005).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Erskine, P. D. et al. Subantarctic Macquarie Island—a model ecosystem for studying animal-derived nitrogen sources using 15N natural abundance. Oecologia 117, 187–193 (1998).ADS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Hocking, M. D. & Reimchen, T. E. Salmon species, density and watershed size predict magnitude of marine enrichment in riparian food webs. Oikos 118(9), 1307–1318 (2009).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Hocking, M. D. & Reynolds, J. D. Impacts of salmon on riparian plant diversity. Science 331, 1609–1612 (2011).ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Hocking, M. D., & Reimchen, T. E. Salmon-derived nitrogen in terrestrial invertebrates from coniferous forests of the Pacific Northwest. BMC Ecol. 2, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6785-2-4 (2002).Bilby, R. E., Fransen, B. R. & Bisson, P. A. Incorporation of nitrogen and carbon from spawning coho salmon into the trophic system of small streams: Evidence from stable isotopes. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 53, 164–173 (1996).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Talley, D. M. et al. Research challenges at the land–sea interface. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 58, 699–702 (2003).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Mizutani, H. & Wada, E. Nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios in seabird rookeries and their ecological implications. Ecology 69(2), 340–349 (1988).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Rowe, J. A., Litton, C. M., Lepczyk, C. A. & Popp, B. N. Impacts of endangered seabirds on nutrient cycling in montane forest ecosystems of Hawai’i. Pac. Sci. 71(4), 495–509 (2017).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Sanchez-Pinero, F. & Polis, G. A. Bottom-up dynamics of allochthonous input: Direct and indirect effects of seabirds on islands. Ecology 81(11), 3117–3132 (2000).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wait, D. A., Aubrey, D. P. & Anderson, W. B. Seabird guano influences on desert islands: Soil chemistry and herbaceous species richness and productivity. J. Arid Environ. 60, 681–695 (2005).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Stapp, P., Polis, G. A. & Pinero, F. S. Stable isotopes reveal strong marine and El Nino effects on island food webs. Nature 401, 467–469 (1999).ADS 
    CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Anderson, W. B., Wait, D. A. & Stapp, P. Resources from another place and time: Responses to pulses in a spatially subsidized system. Ecology 89(3), 660–670 (2008).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Ellis, J. C. Marine birds on land: A review of plant biomass, species richness, and community composition in seabird colonies. Plant Ecol. 181(2), 227–241 (2005).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Fukami, T. et al. Above- and below-ground impacts of introduced predators in seabird-dominated island ecosystems. Ecol. Lett. 9, 1299–1307 (2006).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wootton, J. T. Direct and indirect effects of nutrients on intertidal community structure: Variable consequences of seabird guano. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 151, 139–153 (1991).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    McCauley, D. J., et al., From wing to wing: the persistence of long ecological interaction chains in less-disturbed ecosystems. Sci. Rep. 2, 409. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00409 (2012).Young, H. S., McCauley, D. J., Dunbar, R. B. & Dirzo, R. Plants cause ecosystem nutrient depletion via the interruption of bird-derived spatial subsidies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107(5), 2072–2077 (2010).ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Lindeboom, H. J. The nitrogen pathway in a Penguin rookery. Ecology 65(1), 269–277 (1984).CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Mizutani, H., Kabaya, Y. & Wada, E. Ammonia volatilization and high 15N/14N ratio in a penguin rookery in Antarctica. Geochem. J. 19(6), 323–327 (1985).ADS 
    CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Anderson, W. B. & Polis, G. A. Nutrient fluxes from water to land: seabirds affect plant nutrient status on Gulf of California islands. Oecologia 118, 324–332 (1999).ADS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Polis, G. A. & Hurd, S. D. Linking marine and terrestrial food webs: Allochthonous input from the ocean supports high secondary productivity on small islands and coastal land communities. Am. Nat. 147, 396–423 (1996).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Goss, N. S. New and rare birds found breeding on the San Pedro Martir Isle. University of California Press 5, 240–244 (1888).
    Google Scholar 
    Velarde, E., et al., Nesting seabirds of the Gulf of California’s Offshore islands: Diversity, ecology and conservation. in Biodiversity, Ecosystems, and Conservation in Northern Mexico, Carton, J.-L. E., Ceballos, G., Felger, R. S. Eds. (Oxford University Press, 2005) pp. 452–470.Wilder, B. T., Felger, R. S. & Ezcurra, E. Controls of plant diversity and composition on a desert archipelago. PeerJ 7, e7286. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7286 (2019).Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 
    Ellis, J., Fariña, J. & Witman, J. Nutrient transfer from sea to land: the case of gulls and cormorants in the Gulf of Maine. J. Anim. Ecol. 75, 565–574 (2006).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wilder, B. T., Felger, R. S. & Morales, H. R. Succulent plant diversity of the Sonoran Islands, Gulf of California Mexico. Haseltonia 2008(14), 127–160 (2008).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Lucassen, F. et al. The stable isotope composition of nitrogen and carbon and elemental contents in modern and fossil seabird guano from Northern Chile—Marine sources and diagenetic effects. PLoS ONE 12(6), e0179440. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179440 (2017).CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 
    Robinson, D. δ15N as an integrator of the nitrogen cycle. Trends Ecol. Evol. 16(3), 153–162 (2001).CAS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Szpak, P., Longstaffe, F. J., Millaire, J.-F. & White, C. D. Stable isotope biogeochemistry of seabird guano fertilization: Results from growth chamber studies with maize (Zea mays). PLoS ONE 7(3), e33741. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033741 (2012).ADS 
    CAS 
    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 
    Ezcurra, E., et al. Natural History and Evolution of the World’s Deserts. Global Deserts Outlook. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1–26 (2006).Yetman, D. The Great Cacti: Ethnobotany and biogeography (University of Arizona Press, 2007).
    Google Scholar 
    Álvarez-Borrego, S. Physical oceanography. in A New Island Biogeography of the Sea of Cortés, Case, T. J., Cody, M. L., Ezcurra, E. Eds. (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 41–59.Douglas, R., Gonzalez-Yajimovich, O., Ledesma-Vazquez, J. & Staines-Urias, F. Climate forcing, primary production and the distribution of Holocene biogenic sediments in the Gulf of California. Quatern. Sci. Rev. 26, 115–129 (2007).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Urbán, J. Marine mammals of the Gulf of California: An overview of diversity and conservation status. in The Gulf of California: Biodiversity and conservation, R. C. Brusca, Ed. (The University of Arizona Press and the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2010), pp. 188–209.Hastings, P. A., Findley, L. T., & Van der Heiden, A. M. Fishes of the Gulf of California. in: Brusca, R. C., (eds) The Gulf of California: Biodiversity and conservation 96–118, The University of Arizona Press and the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum (2010).
    Google Scholar 
    Polis, G. A., Hurd, S. D., Jackson, C. T. & Sanchez Piñero, F. El Niño effects on the dynamics and control of an Island ecosystem in the Gulf of California. Ecology 78, 1884–1897 (1997).
    Google Scholar 
    Wilder, B. T. & Felger, R. S. Dwarf giants, guano, and isolation: The flora and vegetation of San Pedro Mártir Island, Gulf of California, Mexico. Proc. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 42, 1–24 (2010).
    Google Scholar 
    Medel-Narvaez, A., Leon Luz, J. L., Freaner-Martinez, F. & Molina-Freaner, F. Patterns of abundance and population structure of Pachycereus pringlei (Cactaceae), a columnar cactus of the Sonoran Desert. Plant Ecol. 187, 1–14 (2006).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Felger, R.S., Wilder, B.T. in collaboration with Romero-Morales, H. Plant Life of a Desert Archipelago: Flora of the Sonoran Islands in the Gulf of California. Tucson, University of Arizona Press (2012).Wilkinson, C. E., Hocking, M. D. & Reimchen, T. E. Uptake of salmon-derived nitrogen by mosses and liverworts in Coastal British Columbia. Oikos 108, 85–98 (2005).CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Barrett, K., Wait, D. A. & Anderson, W. B. Small island biogeography in the Gulf of California: Lizards, the subsidized island biogeography hypothesis, and the small island effect. J. Biogeogr. 30, 1575–1581 (2003).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Young, H. S., McCauley, D. J. & Dirzo, R. Differential responses to guano fertilization among tropical tree species with varying functional traits. Am. J. Bot. 98, 207–214 (2011).PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Nobel, P. S. Environmental Biology of Agaves and Cacti. Cambridge University Press (2003).Ramirez, K. S., Craine, J. M. & Fierer, N. Consistent effects of nitrogen amendments on soil microbial communities and processes across biomes. Glob. Change Biol. 18(6), 1918–1927 (2012).ADS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Craine, J. M. et al. Ecological interpretations of nitrogen isotope ratios of terrestrial plants and soils. Plant Soil 396, 1–26 (2015).CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Schoeninger, M. J. & DeNiro, M. J. Nitrogen and carbon isotope composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 48(4), 625–639 (1984).ADS 
    CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Amundson, R. et al. Global patterns of the isotopic composition of soil and plant nitrogen. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 17(1), 1031. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GB001903 (2003).ADS 
    CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kahmen, A., Wanek, W. & Buchmann, N. Foliar δ15N values characterize soil N cycling and reflect nitrate or ammonium preference of plants along a temperate grassland gradient. Oecologia 156, 861–870 (2008).ADS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Bowen, T. Unknown Island: Seri Indians, Europeans, and San Esteban Island in the Gulf of California (University of New Mexico Press, 2000).
    Google Scholar 
    Evans, R. D. Physiological mechanisms influencing plant nitrogen isotope composition. Trends Plant Sci. 6(3), 121–126 (2001).CAS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Dolby, G., Bennett, S. E. K., Lira-Noriega, A., Wilder, B. T. & Munguia-Vega, A. Assessing the geological and climatic forcing of biodiversity and evolution surrounding the Gulf of California. J. Southw. 57, 391–455 (2015).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Case, T. J., Cody, M. L., & Ezcurra, E. A New Island Biogeography of the Sea of Cortés (Oxford University Press, 2002).Book 

    Google Scholar 
    Tershy, B. R. & Breese, D. The birds of San Pedro Mártir Island, Gulf of California Mexico. West. Birds 28, 96–107 (1997).
    Google Scholar 
    Tershy, B. R., Breese, D. & Croll, D. A. Human perturbations and conservation strategies for San Pedro Mártir Island, Islas de Golfo de California Reserve México. Environ. Conserv. 24, 261–270 (1997).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Wilder, B. T. Historical biogeography of the Midriff Islands in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Dissertation. Riverside: UC, Riverside (2014).Post, D. M. et al. Getting to the fat of the matter: Models, methods and assumptions for dealing with lipids in stable isotope analyses. Oecologia 152, 179–189 (2007).ADS 
    PubMed 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kiljunen, M. et al. A revised model for lipid-normalizing δ13C values from aquatic organisms, with implications for isotope mixing models. J. Appl. Ecol. 43, 1213–1222 (2006).CAS 
    Article 

    Google Scholar 
    Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B. & Christensen, R. H. B. lmerTest Package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. J. Stat. Softw. 82(13), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13 (2017).Article 

    Google Scholar 
    R Core Team, R: A language and environment for statistical computing. https://www.R-project.org/ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, 2022). More