Philippa Kaur

AbstractThe endosymbiont Wolbachia can both benefit host nutrition and manipulate host reproduction to its own advantage. However, the mechanisms of its nutritional benefits remain unclear. We show that Wolbachia enhances ovarian development in the small brown planthopper Laodelphax striatellus by boosting energy production. Wolbachia-infected females have increased fecundity, accelerated ovarian development, and prolonged oviposition. Enhanced activity of mitochondrial complex I is linked to increased ATP production and the expression of energy metabolism-related genes. We further identify that Wolbachia-synthesized riboflavin is crucial for ATP production and ovarian development. A riboflavin transporter, slc52a3a, positively correlates with Wolbachia density and is required for normal ovarian maturation. Our findings demonstrate that Wolbachia-produced riboflavin drives energy production and accelerates ovarian maturation, thus improving host fecundity. This research reveals insights into symbiont-host metabolic interactions and underscores the role of nutrient delivery in symbiosis.

Data availability

The RNA-seq data generated in this study have been deposited in the NCBI GenBank database under accession code PRJNA1195149, PRJNA1195150, and PRJNA1195152. Source data are provided with this paper.
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Xiao-Yue Hong or Xiao-Li Bing.Ethics declarations

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleNiu, YD., Fan, QH., Wang, ZH. et al. Wolbachia enhances ovarian development in the rice planthopper Laodelphax striatellus through elevated energy production.
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AbstractMosquitoes of the Anopheles, Aedes, and Culex genera are responsible for transmitting major vector-borne diseases. Malaria remains a significant public health concern in Odisha, primarily due to the state’s conducive environment for Anopheles mosquito breeding. This study, conducted between March 2021 and February 2023 across 11 traditionally hyper-endemic districts in southern Odisha, aimed to assess seasonal variations in Anopheles diversity, composition, and abundance. A total of 10,807 Anopheles mosquito’s species were collected manually indoors (house dwellings and cattle sheds) and outdoors (burrows, vegetation, tree holes, and culverts). Morphological identification revealed 18 Anopheles species. An. subpictus was the predominant species during the summer of 2021, with (328; 42.99%), and during the rainy season, with (1151; 46.60%), although its prevalence declined in subsequent years. An. culicifacies, a primary malaria vector, exhibited a consistent presence with (780; 31.58%) in the rainy season of 2021 and (798; 38.35%) in the rainy season of 2022. An. varuna remained scarce during summer and rainy seasons but peaked sharply in winter, with the highest prevalence in winter 2021–2022 (730; 35.56%) and winter 2022–2023 (485; 25.18%). Diversity indices (Shannon’s, Simpson’s, Pielou’s) and Correspondence Analysis identified Ganjam as the district with the highest species diversity (1.26–2.2). Seasonal variation had a statistically significant impact on species diversity (p < 0.001), surpassing the influence of district level factors. These findings show that seasonality strongly influences Anopheles populations and highlight the need for localized, evidence-based vector control. Monitoring of mosquito diversity is vital for shaping malaria interventions suited to Odisha’s transmission ecology.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.
AbbreviationsDDT:
Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
IVM:
Integrated vector management
H’:
Shannon’s diversity index
D:
Simpson’s index
J’:
Pielou index
CA:
Correspondence analysis
OWMS:
Odisha weather monitoring systems
LLINs:
Long-lasting insecticidal nets
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe extend sincere appreciation to Malaria Elimination Research Alliance (MERA) India for providing the essential funding that made this project possible. We are also deeply grateful to the technical staff for their invaluable assistance throughout the study. Furthermore, we acknowledge the support and cooperation of the inhabitants of all sampling sites and the dedicated volunteers whose significant contributions during fieldwork were indispensable. This research would not have been possible without their collective efforts.Author informationAuthor notesThese authors contributed equally: Muhammed Mustafa Baig and Divya Teja Koppula.Authors and AffiliationsICMR-Vector Control Research Centre Field Unit, Near Hati lane, Koraput, Odisha, 764 020, IndiaMuhammed Mustafa Baig, Dilip Kumar Panigrahi, Dolly Choudhary, Premalatha Acharya & Manoj PatnaikICMR-Vector Control Research Centre, Medical Complex, Indira Nagar, Puducherry, IndiaDivya Teja Koppula, B. Vijayakumar, K. Gunasekaran, Ashwani Kumar, Manju Rahi & A. N. ShriramAuthorsMuhammed Mustafa BaigView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarDivya Teja KoppulaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarDilip Kumar PanigrahiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarB. VijayakumarView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarDolly ChoudharyView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarPremalatha AcharyaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarManoj PatnaikView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarK. GunasekaranView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAshwani KumarView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarManju RahiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarA. N. ShriramView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsConceptualization and design: ANS, and AK.Writing – original draft preparation: DTK, MMB and ANS; Conducting the field study and supervision: DKP, DC, PA, MP and MMBWriting – review and editing with inputs from all other authors: ANS, AK, DTK and MR; Acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation: VK, DTK and ANSRevising it critically for intellectual content and the final approval of the version to be published: AK, ANS and MR. All authors provided critical feedback. All authors have read and agreed to the final version of the manuscript and to be accountable for all aspects of the work.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleBaig, M.M., Koppula, D.T., Panigrahi, D.K. et al. Seasonal dynamics and species diversity of Anopheles mosquitoes in malaria endemic districts of Southern Odisha India.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-28997-1Download citationReceived: 09 June 2025Accepted: 13 November 2025Published: 13 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-28997-1Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsMalariaOdishaShannon’sSimpson’sAnd pielou’s
Anopheles diversity More

AbstractWild edible fruits are rich in micronutrients and serve as an essential source of nutrition for the poor in developing countries, where malnutrition is widespread. The morphological and nutritional compositions of Bauhinia thonningii pod and seed were evaluated using samples collected from two distinct agroecological zones, the warm moist lowlands (WMLL) and tepid sub-moist mid-highlands (TSMMHL), in the Tselemti district, Ethiopia. Data were analyzed using independent sample t-test, ANOVA with a general linear model, and Principal component analysis (PCA) for morphological traits, proximate composition, and mineral content to determine their association with agroecological zones. The results showed that morphological traits such as the mean pod length (p < 0.000), pod width (p = 0.036), pod thickness (p = 0.005), pericarp weight (p = 0.006), total seed weight (p = 0.003), individual seed weight (p = 0.005), and number of seeds per pod (p < 0.000) differed significantly between the two agroecological zones (p < 0.05). Higher mean values of pod length (18.34 cm), width (2.87 cm), thickness (0.85 cm), total pod weight (11.56 g), total seed weight (8.93 g), and number of seeds per pod (51 ns) were recorded in the warm moist lowlands compared to the tepid sub-moist mid-highlands. The moisture content of the B. thonningii pod (9.02%) and seed (7.02%) was higher in tepid sub-moist mid-highlands than in the warm moist lowlands. The crude protein (9.74 and 30.73%), crude fat (0.96 and 2.48%), crude fiber (26.03 and 32.86%), total carbohydrates (56.30 and 33.70%), and energy values (1106.36 and 1103.87 kJ/100 g) of the pod and seed, respectively, were higher in the WMLL compared to the TSMMHL. All proximate compositions of the B. thonningii pod and seed varied significantly between the two agroecological zones (p < 0.05), except for ash content. Most mineral concentrations in the pod and seeds, such as calcium (152.26 and 36.77 mg/100 g), magnesium (129.59 and 8.04 mg/100 g), potassium (1325.44 and 130.61 mg/100 g), and sodium (8.99 and 16.90 mg/100 g), were significantly higher in the warm moist lowland agroecology. This may be attributed to higher humidity, soil mineralization, evaporative concentration, and increased soil nutrient movement under warm lowland environmental conditions. Significant differences were observed in the concentrations of all minerals in the pods and seeds between the agroecologies, except for magnesium and zinc in the seed analysis. Overall, the findings indicate that understanding the morphological, proximate, and mineral compositions of B. thonningii is valuable for its sustainable utilization, conservation, domestication, and breeding. The pods and seeds of B. thonningii possess high nutritional potential and could be used for both human and animal nutrition following further detailed investigation.

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Data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Requests should include a detailed rationale for data access and a commitment to using the data solely for the stated purpose, in compliance with ethical guidelines.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors are most grateful for financial support from the MU-NMBU Phase IV Project through Mekelle University and the McKnight Foundation’s Collaborative Crop Research Program. We extend our gratitude to Dr. Zenebe Girmay, the field assistants, the technical and laboratory staff, and the farmers whose fields we visited during data collection. Their invaluable contributions were essential to compiling this manuscript. Additionally, we acknowledge the Institute of International Education-Scholars Rescue Fund (IIE-SRF), and Nord University, Faculty of Bioscience and Aquaculture (FBA), and the NORGLOBAL 2 project “Towards a climate-smart policy and management framework for conservation and use of dry forest ecosystem services and resources in Ethiopia [grant number: 303600]” for supporting the research stay of Emiru Birhane at NMBU.FundingThe research fund for this study was obtained from the MU-HU-NMBU collaborative project through Mekelle University and the Ethiopian Ministry of Education.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection, College of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resources, Mekelle University, P. O. Box 231, Mekelle, EthiopiaTesfaye Gebre, Mitiku Haile & Emiru BirhaneFaculty of Bioscience and Aquaculture, Nord University, P. O. Box 2501, 7729, Steinkjer, NorwayEmiru BirhaneInstitute of Climate and Society, P. O. Box 231, Mekelle, EthiopiaEmiru BirhaneDepartment of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Mekelle University, Mekelle, EthiopiaSarah Tewolde-BerhanAuthorsTesfaye GebreView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMitiku HaileView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarSarah Tewolde-BerhanView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarEmiru BirhaneView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsT.G. data collection, investigation, data curation, methodology, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. M.H. supervised, conceptualization, review, and editing the original draft and manuscript. S.T.B. conceptualization, conceived and designed the experiments, contributed materials and training, and review and editing. E.B. supervised, conceptualization, writing—original draft, review and editing the manuscript critically.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Tesfaye Gebre.Ethics declarations

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval
The study was conducted with formal approval from the Vice President for Research and Technology Transfer at Mekelle University. An official permission letter from the department of land resources management and environmental protection was submitted to the administrative offices of Tselemti district, and the Tselemti Agricultural and Rural Development Office. Verbal consent was obtained from all relevant authorities and farmers in the district. This was done after the main objectives of the study were clearly explained with the assistance of local language translators. No endangered or threatened species were collected or included in the study.

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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleGebre, T., Haile, M., Tewolde-Berhan, S. et al. Morphological and nutritional composition of Bauhinia thonningii pods and seeds in Northern Ethiopia.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32054-2Download citationReceived: 08 May 2025Accepted: 08 December 2025Published: 13 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32054-2Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsFodder treeNutritional valueProximate compositionSeed traitsUnderutilized treeWild edible fruits More

AbstractPaddy rice exacerbates climate warming through greenhouse gas emissions but also cools the land surface by enhancing evapotranspiration. While the former effect has received extensive attention, the biophysical cooling effect remains poorly quantified, partly due to the lack of high-quality global paddy rice data. Here, we address this gap by developing a universal rice mapping framework that integrates the strengths of phenology-based and curve-matching methods to construct the global, long-term rice dataset (GlobalRice500) with daily temporal and 500 m spatial resolution. Our analysis reveals that paddy fields annually reduce daytime land surface temperature by 0.21 ((pm)0.0057)–0.27 ((pm)0.0063) °C during the growing season compared to other croplands, with stronger cooling observed in larger fields and partial spillover to surrounding landscapes. These findings provide robust evidence of the surface cooling effect of paddy rice and call for a comprehensive evaluation of its role in climate regulation.

Data availability

The GlobalRice50031 dataset generated in this study have been deposited in the Zenodo database (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17460919). The mean values and uncertainty quantification underlying the Figures generated in this study are provided in the Supplementary Information and Source Data file. Publicly available data used in this study are referenced. Source data are provided with this paper.
Code availability

The MPD_DTW30 code is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17679402. The source code is freely available for non-commercial research and educational purposes, provided that proper attribution is given. Modification and redistribution are permitted under the same conditions. Commercial use of the software is strictly prohibited.
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Jingfeng Huang.Ethics declarations

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Nature Communications thanks Anne Gobin and the other, anonymous, reviewer for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleWeng, W., Huang, J., Yue, C. et al. Widespread land surface cooling from paddy rice cultivation revealed by global satellite mapping.
Nat Commun (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-67549-zDownload citationReceived: 28 May 2025Accepted: 03 December 2025Published: 13 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-67549-zShare this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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AbstractSoybean (Glycine max) is an important source of plant-based protein and oil, but its cultivation is highly sensitive to climate conditions. In Poland, interest in soybean is growing due to climate change and increasing demand for protein-rich crops. However, cultivation of photophilic crops is still limited. This study presents results from field trials conducted in Northern Poland from 2017 to 2019, involving 13 registered soybean cultivars tested at 10 locations. The aim of the study was to evaluate seed yield, protein and fat content and protein yield under varying environmental conditions. Weather variability, particularly temperature and rainfall, had a greater influence on results than the cultivar tested. Advanced statistical analyses showed that, of all 13 tested cultivars, Moravians (mid-late) had the most favorable WAAS and GSI values in terms of protein yield. According to WTOP3 score, the Kofu (late) cultivar had the highest adaptability for seeds yield and protein yield. Protein yield is the most important indicator of the profitablility of soybean cultivation in countries with a deficit of feed plant protein. The study supports targeted cultivar selection to improve soybean production under changing climate conditions in countries located at higher latitudes, such as Poland.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
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Download referencesFundingThe APC/BPC is financed/co-financed by Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences and Research Centre for Cultivar Testing (COBORU) in Słupia Wielka, Poland.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsResearch Centre for Cultivar Testing, Słupia Wielka 34, 63-022, Słupia Wielka, PolandBeata Kaliska & Henryk BujakInstitute of Agroecology and Plant Production, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Grunwaldzki Sq. 24 A, 50-363, Wrocław, PolandAndrzej Kotecki, Magdalena Serafin-Andrzejewska & Anna Jama-RodzeńskaInstitute of Soil Science, Plant Nutrition and Environmental Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 50-363, Wroclaw, PolandBernard GałkaDepartment of Genetics, Plant Breeding and Seed Production, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Grunwaldzki Sq. 24a, 50-363, Wrocław, PolandHenryk BujakAuthorsBeata KaliskaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAndrzej KoteckiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBernard GałkaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMagdalena Serafin-AndrzejewskaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarHenryk BujakView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAnna Jama-RodzeńskaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsB.K., H.B.- Conceptualization; B.K., A.K., B.G.- Investigation; M.S.A., A.J.R., B.K.-wrote the main manucript; M.S.A, A.J.R.-literature and visualisation; A.K.,B.G. and H.B.-Supervising.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to
Magdalena Serafin-Andrzejewska or Anna Jama-Rodzeńska.Ethics declarations

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional informationPublisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Supplementary InformationBelow is the link to the electronic supplementary material.Supplementary Material 1.Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleKaliska, B., Kotecki, A., Gałka, B. et al. Assessment of soybean cultivars’responses to diverse climatic conditions in Northern Poland in terms of yield and seed composition.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31124-9Download citationReceived: 18 July 2025Accepted: 29 November 2025Published: 13 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31124-9Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsClimate changeCultivarsSeed yieldProtein contentFat contentAMMI analysisGSIWAAS More

AbstractMaize production by smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa is constrained by declining soil fertility due to low input use and poor nutrient management. This study evaluated the individual and combined effects of biochar, compost, and chemical fertilizer on maize growth, yield, and soil chemical properties during the 2023 and 2024 cropping seasons in Northern Ghana. A randomized complete block design was used with six treatments: control, biochar alone (B), compost alone (C), chemical fertilizer (CF), biochar + compost (½ B + ½ C), and biochar + compost + chemical fertilizer (½ B + ½ C + ½ CF). Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and treatment means were separated using the least significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% probability level. The biochar + compost + chemical fertilizer (½ B + ½ C + ½ CF) treatment significantly increased maize grain yield by 105.7% in 2023 and 127.4% in 2024 compared to the control. Soil organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus improved by 115.8%, 685%, and 40.2%, respectively, under this integrated treatment. The SPAD chlorophyll index, cob number, seed weight, and harvest index also increased significantly. Grain yield correlated strongly with soil pH (r = 0.88***), electrical conductivity (r = 0.94***), organic carbon (r = 0.84***), and phosphorus (r = 0.86***). The results demonstrate that integrating biochar, compost, and mineral fertilizer enhances maize productivity and soil fertility, while biochar addition contributes to increased soil carbon storage in semi-arid, low-input systems of West Africa.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available upon request.
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Download referencesFundingNo funding was received for this study. Declarations Competing interests T he authors declare no competing interests.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsCSIR-Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box TL 52, Tamale, GhanaAbdul-Latif Abdul-Aziz, Abdulai Haruna & Alhassan Yamyolya BaakoAuthorsAbdul-Latif Abdul-AzizView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAbdulai HarunaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAlhassan Yamyolya BaakoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsAll authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. **ALAA** conceived and designed the study, conducted the investigation, and prepared the original manuscript draft. **ALAA, AH, and AYB** contributed to methodology refinement, supervised data collection and analysis, and participated in manuscript review and editing.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Abdul-Latif Abdul-Aziz.Ethics declarations

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Additional informationPublisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleAbdul-Aziz, AL., Haruna, A. & Baako, A.Y. Integrating biochar, compost, and chemical fertilizer improves maize yield and soil health in the guinea savannah: evidence from two cropping seasons in Northern Ghana.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31886-2Download citationReceived: 26 July 2025Accepted: 05 December 2025Published: 13 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31886-2Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsBiocharCompostGuinea savannaIntegrated nutrient managementMaize productivitySoil chemical properties More

AbstractThe initial rate of pathogen invasion in crops is influenced by the spatial clustering of susceptible crops and the characteristics of pathogen dispersal. Previous studies have shown that various degrees of crop clustering can effectively reduce this invasion rate. However, the optimal degrees of clustering that minimize pathogen invasion have not previously been identified. This study aims to determine analytically the range of crop clustering that minimizes the initial rate of pathogen invasion. We studied artificial agricultural landscapes with crop areas arranged in identical square clusters on a regular square lattice. For pathogen dispersal, we used several common dispersal kernels, including Gaussian, negative exponential, and power-law. The optimal degree of clustering, defined by cluster size and separation distance, was calculated using a new analytical approximation for the pathogen invasion rate, which showed strong agreement with computer simulations. Additionally, we analysed a realistic cassava landscape at risk of invasion by cassava brown streak virus. We identified a range of optimal cluster sizes and corresponding separation distances that minimize pathogen invasion rates for various dispersal kernels and landscapes with clusters of crop fields arranged on a regular square lattice. The methods can be extended to other geometrical configurations, such as long narrow fields. Using a cassava landscape as an example, we show how optimal crop clustering strategies can be derived to mitigate the potential invasion of cassava brown streak virus. The methods provides analytical insights that can help farmers and agricultural planners to optimize the spatial structure of agricultural landscapes to minimize initial pathogen invasion rates.

Data availability

The datasets analysed during the current study were sourced from the previously published work by Suprunenko et al. (2024) [39] and are available in the Figshare repository, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25804702.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors are grateful to Dr Stephen Cornell for useful discussions at early stages of this work, and to Dr Alison Scott-Brown for helpful comments on the manuscript.FundingC.A.G. acknowledges financial support from the Gates Foundation (INV-010472).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EA, UKYevhen F. Suprunenko & Christopher A. GilliganAuthorsYevhen F. SuprunenkoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarChristopher A. GilliganView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsBoth authors contributed to the study conception. YFS developed analytical approximations, performed analysis and calculations, and generated figures. YFS and CAG reviewed and discussed the results. The first draft of the manuscript was written by YFS. Both authors reviewed the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Yevhen F. Suprunenko.Ethics declarations

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AbstractThere is a long tradition in using genetically based color polymorphisms in natural populations to study evolutionary processes. Despite growing evidence for continuous phenotypic variation within discrete morphs, we still know little about how this shapes selective dynamics. Here, using 43 years of plumage color data from a Finnish tawny owl population (Strix aluco), we show that gray and brown morphs exhibit substantial intra-morph variation, which has diverged over time. Plumage in the brown morph became increasingly pigmented, while the gray morph showed an abrupt shift toward lighter coloration. By examining both adult and offspring plumage, we identified morph-specific drivers of these trends: in gray owls, reduced pigmentation appears linked to extreme winters that eroded standing genetic variation, likely constraining their evolutionary response. In contrast, brown morph dynamics were shaped by an interaction between plumage coloration, reproductive success, and breeding timing, along with stronger temperature effects during the pre-fledging period. These findings suggest that intra-morph variation determines each morph’s response to selection pressures, potentially influencing their ability to track shifting phenotypic optima. Our work highlights the relevance of phenotypic variation within genetically discrete morphs for evolutionary processes, including how populations respond to environmental change.

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We have archived all data necessary to reproduce the results and figures in an online data repository: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1539270371.
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Arianna Passarotto.Ethics declarations

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articlePassarotto, A., Lürig, M.D., Aaltonen, E. et al. Morph-specific selection drives phenotypic divergence in color polymorphic tawny owls (Strix aluco) in Northern Europe.
Commun Biol (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-025-09365-1Download citationReceived: 16 November 2024Accepted: 03 December 2025Published: 13 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-025-09365-1Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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