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By pooling the results of the entire known range analysis of 14 GPS-collared elephants living in the Kinabatangan, our study suggests that this populations range covers at least 628 km2 (Table 3). Nine different locations were identified as hot spots, representing 266.9 km2 or 43% of this range, suggesting that just under half is highly used and/or frequented (Fig. 1). We found that the size of individual’s hot spots was positively related to the size of the entire range, meaning the larger the entire range the larger the summed area of an elephants hot spots. On average, hot spots represented a relatively small percent of an animal’s entire range (ranging from 4 to 20%, averaging 12%, Table 3). However, time spent within these hot spots ranged from 10 to 60% (averaging 34% across elephants, Table 5), with time spent in hot spots being related to the overall size of the hot spots (the larger the hot spot the more time elephants spent in them).Identifying the location of these hot spots is essential in designing appropriate management practices in collaboration with land users and identifying the best location for elephant corridors. In the last 25 years, forest cover in the Lower Kinabatangan has been drastically reduced and fragmented46, eroding the biodiversity value of this landscape. Today, this region has little remaining forests, and what is left is insufficient for sustaining the local elephant population10. Moreover, forests are highly fragmented along the Kinabatangan River, with a number of bottlenecks constraining elephant movements9. The situation in this landscape is getting worse because of further land clearances for agriculture, namely oil palm; as well as for the highly controversial Sukau Bridge and new road/highway that is planned for the region.Our analyses revealed a highly significant difference between the average proportions of protected area, unprotected forest, and oil palm estate extents within the elephant’s entire range; and a substantive, but not significant, difference across these land use/land cover types within hot spots (Table SI 4). At the individual level, there was a highly significant negative relationship between the proportion of protected areas and oil palm estates both within the elephant’s entire range and within the hot spots.At the pooled level, we found that around 45% of the entire known range and hot spots were within forested environments (280.44 km2 and 120.29 km2 respectively). Our results showed strong fidelity of certain elephants to these forested habitats. Our k-means cluster analysis found that within elephant entire ranges and hot spots, two out of the three cluster groups had high or very high usage of forests. Both cluster 1, for the entire range, and cluster 1 for hot spots extents, had five females that on average used forest environments 90% of their time, with protected areas being used 64% and 59%, and unprotected forested being used on average 26% and 31%, respectively (Table 7).Individuals in cluster 2, for the entire range analysis, on average, spent 73% of their time in forests (57% of this in protected areas and 16% in unprotected forests; Table 7). For the hot spot analysis, the individuals in cluster 2 spent on average 65% of their time in forests (52% of this in the unprotected forests and 13% in protected forests; Table 7). Elephants within these clusters were all females. Our results suggest that forest may be of particular importance for females as they had forest as their dominant land cover type within their entire range, hot spot extents and time spent analyses (Fig. 3, Table 5). Several studies have shown that adult females influence and guide the movement patterns and habitat utilization for their family group and that females in family units tend to inhabit less risky areas, such as within natural forest habitat60,61,62.However, the unprotected forest is at risk. We identified about 8% (or 49 km2) of forest identified within the pooled entire known range were not protected, with half potentially being on state land, and the remaining half on land titles of various types (Table SI 4). For the pooled hot spot areas, unprotected forest was proportionally higher, comprising of 11% (or 29 km2) of the total extent, with 54% being potentially on State land and 46% on land titles (Table SI 4). Protecting these forests would be an essential and efficient way to secure key elephant habitat since all collared individuals were using these forest fragments in their entire range (averaging 11%, and ranging from 8 to 18%), and hot spot extents (averaging 20%, and ranging from 0 to 53%) (Table SI 4, Fig. 3). On average, 24% of time was spent in unprotected forests within hot spots, though this varied widely from 0% (for the male elephant known as Gading) to 61% (for the female matriarch named Jasmine) (Table 5). In fact, five females had large proportions of their hot spot extents (24–53%) in unprotected forests, spending substantial periods of their time (33–61%) within these threatened areas.Our findings show that unprotected forests around the villages of Bilit and Sukau, were of particular significance (Figs. 1, 2). These unprotected forests largely consist of lowland dry forest, seasonally flooded swamp forest, and swamp forest, which are considered important habitats for elephants for feeding, resting and moving47,63. Within these forests, and along the forest margins and river banks there are also natural open grasslands that consist of Phragmites karka and Dinochloa scabrida that provide essential forage, mainly in the riparian areas for elephants9,21,23. Forested environments are also considered to be important in providing natural refugee from human activities and disturbance. For example, elephants have been documented to form significantly larger group sizes, as well as engaging in significantly more social interactions, in natural forest habitat compared to, for example, oil palm landscapes63. Adult females, generally, avoid areas considered unsafe for their respective social units, are more selective in the resources they use, and require regular access to water because of the presence of young64,65,66. This may be why our results, strongly suggest that forest habitats seem to be most important for adult females.Another significant issue faced by these elephants is the threat from the controversial planned Sukau bridge and road/highway that is set out in the Sabah Structure Plan, an overarching policy document for the State58. Currently, a new road/highway is under construction on the northern bank of the village of Sukau, and this has already cleared areas of unprotected forest. This public road could link to a potential new bridge that would cross over the Kinabatangan River, cutting through unprotected forest and a protected area (Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary), before going through oil palm estates then through another protected area to the south and through the Tabin elephant population range. For the Kinabatangan, creating a public highway will cut the elephant population range into two parts (Figs. 2, 3). All collared elephants use this area, as it is a key bottleneck and the only alternative option to pass around Sukau village9. We found that nine elephants have hot spots that intersect or meet up with the current road (which will be up-graded and get considerably busier) and/or the planned road/highway alignment (Figs. SI 1 and 2). For these elephants, we calculated that they spent from 2 to 44% (average 14%) of their time within these hot spots (Table 4). Our statistical analyses suggest that if the road/highway goes ahead it will have a significant impact on the elephants’ behaviour with respect to time spent in the hot spots. Indeed, this infrastructure project could have dire consequences for these elephants and their family groups, by disrupting their ranging patterns and segmenting the entire elephant range into two (Figs. 2, 4). The existing road in Batu Putih has already proven to be an impassable barrier for this elephant population, as no elephants have been observed crossing this road since the early 2000s14. For elephants that do try and cross, vehicle collisions may become a significant threat to elephants and drivers alike67, and potentially increasing human–elephant conflict in the nearby villages, as well as in plantations14,68,69, exacerbating an already difficult situation for this small and fragmented population.Results from the pooled analysis show that about 53% of the entire known population range is within oil palm estates; and 51% for the pooled hot spots (Fig. 3, Table SI 4). Our k-means clustering analysis grouped 6 elephants into cluster 3 that on average spent 57% of time in oil palm estates; and 7 elephants into cluster 2 within the hot spot analysis that on average spent 73% of their time in oil palm estates (Table 6). All the males, were clustered within these groups (Table 5). In fact, the three collared males were amongst the highest users of oil palm estates (Fig. 3, Table SI4, and 5). This could be related to a ‘‘high risk, high gain’’ strategy, often adopted by males to increase body size and enhance reproductive success32,33,60. However, it is interesting to see that three females (Ita, Ratu and Koyah) and their respective social units, also seemed to have high levels of oil palm use, while other individuals had zero or very little use of oil palm (e.g. Aqeela, Jasmin, Sandi, Kasih; Table SI 4, Fig. 3). Differential choices may result from differences in individual knowledge and experience with people during past encounters, for example70,71.We identified that collared elephants were ranging in 11 known oil palm estates, with the five most regularly used being Melangking Oil Palm Plantation (with 12 elephants entire range overlapping with this estate and six hot spots), IOI Corporation (with 11 overlapping entire ranges, and eight hot spots), Genting Plantations (14 and seven, respectively), Sime Darby Plantation (five and two, respectively), and Karangan Agriculture (8 and 2, respectively) (Table 6; Fig. 4). Presence of bottlenecks and barriers (e.g. electric fences) may explain hot spot occurrences in these estates, as well as feeding opportunities, management strategies of specific estates, and historical and seasonal ranges.Linear features like major highways, electric fences and drainage ditches hamper elephant movements within the Lower Kinabatangan9. A previous study identified 20 bottlenecks in the Lower Kinabatangan with the two main ones (of 9 km and 6.5 km in length) found around the village of Sukau9. In addition, the unplanned and chaotic erection of electric fences by large estates and smallholdings has disrupted significantly elephant movement patterns and resulted in artificial hot spots for certain individuals (e.g. Liun, Ita, Gading and Sejati)35,72. Electric fences have widely been used to mitigate human–elephant conflicts. The establishment of fences rarely consider the traditional elephant routes nor the location of existing fences in neighbouring estates. If elephants manage to enter such areas, they often become trapped and experience difficulties in returning to nearby forests, exacerbating conflicts with people35.Certain estates such as Melangking Oil Palm Plantation have allowed elephants to roam freely in their estate (Muhammad Al-Shafieq, personal communication). Since 2017, this plantation has shown a drastic reduction in damages to their oil palms following the removal of their permanent electric fences surrounding their entire estate. Instead, this plantation is using a temporary electric fencing regime around newly planted palm areas. Concurrently, they now do not push elephants out of their estate, which can explain why Melangking Oil Palm Plantation is a significant hotspot in the region.Another reason why elephant ranges incorporate oil palm estates is to move between forest patches that are becoming completely isolated following forest conversion, as is the case close to Sukau (Fig. SI1 and SI2; Fig. 1). Unlike other elephant species that increase their speed of movement rates in highly disturbed areas27,30,66, the Bornean elephant has been observed doing the opposite, which may explain some of the hot spots within oil palm estates. This movement strategy may allow for better vigilance as seen on a few occasions when elephants spent 2–5 days in the Bukit Melapi-Yu Kwang Corridor, near the village of Sukau, before leaving the area (Othman, personal observation).Hot spots in the oil palm landscape can also be explained by feeding opportunities, since elephants feed on palm shoots, leaves and hearts73. Elephants are known to eat the shoots of newly planted oil palms, often killing the palms and causing significant economic damages35. Since 2010, many estates located in the Lower Kinabatangan have started a new palm rotation. Palms are replanted every 25 years. A new rotation includes land clearing, bole and root mass removal, and the shredding or chipping of felled palms. Elephants are attracted to the shredded palm hearts since it gives them easy access to one of their favourite food72. This particular behaviour does not cause economic damage, and some estate managers allow the elephants to stay and forage in the chipping areas. This was documented for several collared elephants, whose hot spots and time spent were particularly high within oil palm (e.g. Gading and Sandy, two males; and Ratu and Ita, two females). Once the shredded palms have dried, however, elephants will leave these areas and move elsewhere. Within oil palm estates, some elephants have been found to travel more directly and rapidly suggesting ‘exploratory’ behaviour, which could be associated with searching for young palms or areas of palm felling and chipping of palm hearts15.Lastly, elephants may still be using their historical range that used to be covered with forest before conversion to oil palm. Other factors potentially explaining the relatively high use of oil palm estates include seasonal variations of ranging patterns. Indeed events of drought or floods limit the access to various parts of the floodplain and will tend to confine the animals in some areas9,63.In Sabah the state authorities have recorded at least 200 elephant deaths from the year 2010 to 2021 and most of these have occurred on, or near, oil palm estates14,74,75,76. Deaths from non-natural causes are largely due to poisoning (both accidental and intentional), gunshot wounds, poaching for tusks and other body parts, and snares35. Stopping killing and enabling a safe coexistence between people and elephants within multiple-use landscapes that are dominated by oil palm is one of the key strategies developed in the Bornean Elephant Action Plan for Sabah (2020–2029), which was endorsed by the State14. Based on our results in Lower Kinabatangan, a series of recommendations are proposed.This study underscores the importance of remaining forested areas for the Lower Kinabatangan elephant population. Full protection of all forest fragments left in the Lower Kinabatangan is urgently needed. Several official mechanisms are available to fulfil this request that has been proposed for the past 20 years by various organizations46.The current network of forests available in the Lower Kinabatangan is too small and fragmented to sustain a viable elephant population. Forest corridors must be created across the landscape through reforestation exercises, whilst concurrently undertaking enrichment planting of native understory forage within forested areas as this may minimize the need for elephants to search for easily accessible food in high-risk oil palm landscapes21,22,23.Current governmental plans to build a road bridge and public road/highway linking the southern bank of the Kinabatangan River to Tabin Wildlife Reserve to the south will irreversibly impact the Lower Kinabatangan elephant population by cutting the current range into two isolated parts. This will impact the elephants ranging patterns, potentially even fragmenting the already small population into two groups, and potentially leading to elephant deaths by vehicle collisions (which is becoming increasingly common in Peninsular Malaysia), and increase the risk of poaching activities, all resulting in a decrease in the genetic diversity of the, already small and isolated, population14,67.Eventually, the future of the Kinabatangan elephant population resides in improving land use and management practices within oil palm estates currently used by elephants. We recommend that priority should be given at improving elephant movements in oil palm estates by removing unnecessary man-made barriers and only cautiously installing temporary electric fences to protect sensitive areas. For example, the use of electric fences around mature oil palm and areas whereby palms are being removed and chipped could be prohibited, and electric fences permitted solely for protecting oil palm nurseries, new plantings and young oil palms (e.g. up to 7–8 years old), and staff and office quarters. This would greatly allow for landscape permeability for elephants, and other species that need to cross the landscape for their ecological and biological needs14.A handful of guidelines exist to assist oil palm managers and staff in managing elephant populations in their respective estates72,77. However, there is a need for a more comprehensive set of guidelines, which delineate better practices with the aim to increase the protection of people and elephants outside protected areas. Guidelines should specify “do’s” and “don’ts” (based on best available data and knowledge) of actions needed before, during and after elephants visit oil palm estates and smallholdings.Sabah now is in an interesting transition within their palm oil sector. On the 21st October 2015, the Sabah State Cabinet committed to produce 100% certified sustainable palm oil, by 2025, under the Roundtable for Sustainable palm Oil (RSPO) Jurisdictional Certification approach. Under this approach, areas of High Conservation Value and areas identified within the High Carbon Stock Approach need specific management and monitoring, in order to comply with RSPO principles and criteria78,79,80. Sabah government can use this platform to build an integrated landscape level approach to better manage landscapes within known elephant ranges (which is considered a High Conservation Value species) to allow for a safe and permeable movement through the landscape.Eventually, long-term survival of the Bornean elephant will mainly depend on how people and elephants can co-exist. It is our hope that this study illustrates the importance of protecting all forested habitat and effectively managing areas outside of protected areas to allow for long-term elephant coexistence with humans in this landscape. More

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