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Massive drift of pumice along the northeastern coast of Okinawa IslandA large amount of pumice stones reached and was deposited along the northeastern coast of Okinawa Island, that were brought by strong seasonal northeasterly winds (Supplementary Video 1). The pumice was thought to be brought by the Kuroshio countercurrent from sites near the Ogasawara Archipelago 1300 km away. Because the Kuroshio countercurrent is composed of various medium-sized eddies in the ocean, the current does not always flow in one direction and as a continuous flow27,28. The pumice drift was more strongly controlled by the seasonal northwesterly winds to be transported to Okinawa across the Philippine Sea (Fig. 1a). The pumice raft reached the northern part of Okinawa approximately 2 months after the eruption (Figs. 2, 3 and 4). According to a very recent report, the pumice clasts were drifting ashore in Thailand (traveling 4000 km-long distance) across the South China Sea within half a year of this eruption29. Most pumice stones were gray, but some pumice was banded, and others were black reflecting some compositional variation25,29 (Fig. 2d,e). The Kuroshio Current is faster than the Kuroshio countercurrent27, so some pumice clasts have already reached the main island of Japan25. Tracking the dispersal of the pumice will allow a better forecasting model based on observed raft trajectories by considering exact wind effects in the Philippine Sea30.Figure 2An example of a natural beach on Okinawa Island where pumice has washed ashore. (a) Appearance of natural sandy beaches on the northern part of Okinawa Island (Ibu beach, Kunigami Village, 26°75′57.88″ N, 128°32′23.32″ E). Photo was taken on 24 October 2021. Pumice drifted onto the sandy beach and formed a striped pattern. The white-capped waves indicate on the place where the reef edge exist. The white arrow points to the mangrove river estuary corresponding to Fig. 9. (b) Estimation of the pumice sedimentation depth on the original sand beach surface. (c) The high tide zone of the natural sandy beach is covered with pumice pebbles and stones. Yellow arrows indicate black pumice stones. Scale bar: 10 cm. (d, e) Front and back of examples of relatively large pumice stones from the same beach. The left image is mostly light brown, whereas the right image is almost black. Scale bars: 5 cm.Full size imageFigure 3Short-term migration of pumice from beaches as revealed by stationary observations. These four photos were taken at two sites on northern Okinawa Island on two consecutive days, 23 and 24 October 2021. (a, b) A sandy beach along the Sate Coast (26°78′84.56″ N, 128°22′30.57″ E). It was windy on the first day, and pumice stones were washed up with the waves. Almost all the pumice stones were removed from the beach and transported offshore on the following day. The black arrow in photo (a) indicates Cape Hedo, the northernmost tip of Okinawa Island. (c, d) At this gravelly beach (26°80′83.25″ N, 128°23′38.56″ E), pumice fully covers the seawall on the first day, but all of the pumice stones washed away, leaving the original gravels, on the following day. The white arrow in each photo indicates an identical marker stone placed on the beach. Weather data of northern Okinawa (https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/daily_a1.php?prec_no=91&block_no=0901&year=2021&month=10&day=23&view=g_wsp) and tidal data (Naha: 26°13′ N, 127°40′ E) (https://www.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/kaiyou/db/tide/genbo/genbo.php) are provided by Japan Meteorological Agency.Full size imageFigure 4Pumice stones settled by marine organisms. (a) Pumice collected from Ibu beach on 31 October 2021. Two marine benthos coexist close together on a pumice stone. Scale bar: 1 cm. (b) Enlarged image of the Lepas barnacle. Scale bar: 3 mm. (c) Enlarged image of the bryozoan. Scale bar: 3 mm. (d) Stereo microscopic image of pumice pebbles of a few millimeters in diameter collected from Ibu beach on 15 January 2022. The light brown coloration indicates some algal/cyanobacterial growth on the pumice. Scale bar 1 mm. (e) Red autofluorescence was detected from pumice pebbles. Image corresponds to (d). Autofluorescence from microalgae was confirmed by Supplementary Fig. 2. Scale bar 1 mm. (f) Enlarged image of the center of the figure of (e) shows red autofluorescent signals with a diameter of 10–30 µm. Scale bar: 200 µm.Full size imageChanges in the coastal landscape: natural beaches and estuariesMarine calcifiers, including corals, calcareous algae, and foraminifers, produce white sandy beaches on Okinawa Island. However, the gray pumice drifting ashore changed the white sand beach, especially along the northeastern coastline. We observed several lines of pumice aggregations, suggesting that pumice was brought ashore by wavefronts several times produced by a strong north wind at the tide lines (Supplementary Video 1; Fig. 2a). At the same sampling site, the thickest depth of beached pumice was more than 30 cm (Fig. 2b; Supplementary Video 2). Most of the pumice stones were from 0.5 cm to 3 cm in diameter, with a few black pumice stones included (Fig. 2c: yellow arrow). Pumice stones arrived at the estuaries of some brackish rivers (Fig. 8, Supplementary Fig. 1a) and mangrove forests in northwest Okinawa (Fig. 9).Pumice stones and pumice rafts show dynamic behavior in a short period. We captured photographs 24 h apart at two positions on the shore of Okinawa, which allowed us to compare the pumice dynamics during this period (Fig. 3). Within that time frame, there were two high tides, and the tide level changed by up to 170 cm. As seen in Fig. 3a, on the first day, the coast was covered with pumice, and floating pumice could be seen on the seafront. The north wind was strong that day, as shown by the relatively high waves near the shore as well as white‐crested waves near the reef edge. By the following day, most of the pumice had been moved offshore by tides and winds (Fig. 3b), indicating that newly beached pumice raft deposits were removed quickly from open beach areas. At another site on a gravelly beach, pumice fully covered the seawall on the first day, but almost all of the pumice stones were washed away, leaving the original gravels, on the following day (Fig. 3c,d). Japan Meteorological Agency (Oku station: 232 m above sea level, latitude 26°50.1, longitude 128°16.3′) reported that northerly winds were blowing (mean wind speed: 3.4 m/s) on 23rd October in northern Okinawa. The following day, the wind direction changed to the east-southeast; blowing offshore (mean wind speed: 2.9 m/s), resulting in the dramatic removal of pumice form the coast (Fig. 3). These observations indicate that surface winds rather than ocean currents had a strong influence on the raft trajectory and residence time on beaches, and are consistent with past research5. These observations lead us to expect that the pumice rafts will disappear from the coast of Okinawa fairly quickly, but in fact, there have been many cases where they have come back again in a few days. Although the overall amount of pumice drifting has been decreasing, a small amount of pumice has been drifting in coastal area of Okinawa in May, 202231. It is unlikely that large amounts of pumice will drift repeatedly throughout Okinawa Prefecture as reported in this report, but it should be noted that detached pumice material remains in beach and river runoff.Biofouling of sessile organisms on pumice arriving to OkinawaIt is noteworthy that the pumice rafts traveled over the deep Philippine Sea for over 2 months, and on arrival in Okinawa there was little to no biofouling of the pumice (Fig. 2). Some stranded pumices observed on Okinawa beaches had become habitats for sessile organisms (Fig. 4), as reported in previous studies1,2,3,4,5,6,29. Goose barnacles (Lepas sp.) without external damage to the shell were the most abundant species observed on the pumice (Fig. 4b). Lepas is a common biofouling taxon distributed globally and plays a role in biofouling as a foundation organism. The shell growth rate is more than 1 mm/day in some Lepas species32 suggesting that the Lepas had been growing on the pumice for about two weeks. Measurements of the shell size of Lepas attached to the pumice collections conducted in the same area (Supplementary Video 2) showed a bias toward larger sizes in the second collection (5.92 ± 3.86 mm (average ± S.D.), n = 75, 13 November 2021) than in the first one (3.43 ± 1.08 mm, n = 21, 31 October 2021), and significant differences were detected between the measurement periods (Mann–Whitney U test, p  More

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