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The Sargasso Sea has long been considered as the spawning area for Atlantic eels, despite the absence of direct observations after more than a hundred years of the survey. We proposed a new insight on the location of Atlantic eels spawning areas eastward of the Sargasso Sea at the intersection between the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the oceanic fronts1. Our hypothesis is based on a body of corroborating cues from literature. We suggested that European silver eels converge towards the Azores whatever their departure point from Europe and Northern Africa, then they follow the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south westerly until they reach oceanographic fronts where temperature and depths are favourable for reproduction. These orientation behaviours are potentially based on magnetic fields and odours that might be generated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge volcanic activity and detected by eels during their diel vertical movements. The first favourable meeting point is then located at the crossing between the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the oceanic thermic isotherms located around 45° W and 26° N. Our hypothesis is supported by (i) microchemical differences between the core of otoliths extracted from leptocephali collected in the Sargasso Sea and from glass eels collected across Europe suggesting that glass eels hatch in different chemical environments than leptocephali (ii) an asymmetric genetic introgression between American and European eels2 suggesting that the overlapping spawning areas favour transport of hybrids towards northern Europe rather than to America and to southern Europe. This supports the possible existence of several distinct spawning areas, where currents favour transport either westward (American eel), north eastward (hybrids and European eels) or eastward (European eels). To test this hypothesis, we developed a transport model and compared the dispersion dynamics of virtual leptocephali released from the Sargasso Sea and from above the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The transport models showed that virtual eels released from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge reached Europe and America following similar patterns than those released from the Sargasso Sea thus supporting the Mid-Atlantic Ridge spawning hypothesis.Hanel et al.3 have raised several concerns, one of which being that “microchemical evidence was the only was the major argument supporting the Mid-Atlantic Ridge hypothesis”. This was their start point of a critical rebuttal of our findings to question our hypothesis. Instead, we consider that our regrettable error does not fundamentally contradict the possibility that eels do indeed successfully spawn outside the so-called Sargasso Sea.(Comment 1) The importance of seamounts as orientation and navigation cues towards a spawning area was hypothesized, no clear mechanism is proposed for how the migrating eels can detect the ridge.(Response 1) Our Hypothesis does not state that eels find a kind of shallow seamount where they spawn. Instead, we propose that orientation of silver eels during their spawning migration could be based on a combination of behavioural mechanisms including geomagnetism, odours, temperature and salinity gradients4,5,6,7,8. These environmental cues and related gradients are strongly controlled or influenced by the topography of the oceanic floor. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Mariana areas have similarities with ridges and seamount chains oriented perpendicularly to temperature and salinity fronts surrounded by deep abyssal plains. Our Mid-Atlantic Ridge hypothesis proposed that Atlantic eels could use similar signposts as Japanese eel, which hatch near the Mariana Ridge9. Indeed, as for the Japanese eels, the orientation mechanism that lead Atlantic eels from the growth areas to the ridge are not understood, but the empirical observations from Righton et al.10 suggest that eels converge towards the Azores whatever their release point across Europe and that their diel vertical migration takes them down to 500–1000 m every day. The reasons for this behaviour are not elucidated, but since they cost energy, they are likely compensated by advantages such as orientation together with predator avoidance and sexual maturation11,12,13. Following our hypothesis, eels search for orientation cues during DVM. The geomagnetic fields are suggested to provide detectable information for silver eels on their oceanic spawning migration14. However, whether magnetic characteristics of the Mid-Atlantic ridge may provide detectable orientation cues still needs to be documented. Similarly, the existence of detectable odours that might be generated by the tectonic activity and hydrodynamics of the Mid-Atlantic ridge and serve as orientation cues for eels is still unknown. Hydrodynamic mesoscale turbulence and vertical flows have been shown to be generated along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge15, which we propose eels might be able to detect. There are no well supported spawning areas of freshwater eels other than A. japonica and one north Pacific population of A. marmorata. The spawning areas of the other species remain unknown. In the south west Indian Ocean, spawning areas of 3 species (A. mossambica, A. marmorata and A. bicolor) were proposed on the east of the Mascarene Ridge with a similar topography (although shallower) than along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Mid-Pacific ridge and seamounts16,17. Inaccurate spawning areas were also proposed for the South Pacific A. diffenbachii between Fiji, New Caledonia and New Zealand; in the vicinity of a number of oceanic ridges and trenches18 that may also serve as landmarks. Because all eel species studied on their spawning migration show similar diel vertical migration behaviours, it is likely that common orientation mechanisms could lead to detection of oceanographic variability related to the topography of the sea floor and related geomagnetism, local hydrodynamic turbulence and odour caused by vertical currents. This kind of oceanic landscape (chains of seamounts) occurs on narrow areas which strongly increase the meeting probability of spawners searching for partners and favourable spawning places.(Comment 2) Drift simulation with departures from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and from the Sargasso Sea showed similar results. This is not surprising since the modelling of larval drift seems essentially just to reflect the slow westward drift prevailing both in the Sargasso Sea and Mid-Atlantic Ridge areas. The assumption of using the intersection of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge by the two thermal fronts as presumed spawning places seems to have little basis. There is no indication neither of one nor two temperature fronts at depths where leptocephali are found along a 45  W latitudinal section in the middle of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge area.(Response 2) We agree with the comments that the similar distributions between the departure from the Sargasso Sea and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are expected, as they mainly reflect the ocean circulation. This is also what we wanted to address, if different departures could lead to similar distributions, either Sargasso Sea or Mid-Atlantic Ridge could be candidates for the spawning area. We also agree that many eel larvae were collected at the two fronts in the Sargasso Sea, but not near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. However, if the departure from the Sargasso Sea and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge led to similar distributions after 720 days, they were not the result of westward current, but the cause of a relatively quiet ocean in the Sargasso Sea and its surrounding area (i.e. Fig. 1). Without prevailing current, small larvae were mainly transported by ocean dispersion, and would later be transported by the major currents that lie in the north (Azores Current), south (North Equatorial Current), and west (Gulf Stream) of the Sargasso Sea. So, we compared departures at 100 km from west and east of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Subtle differences occurred (figure below). V-larvae departing from the east of the ridge dispersed relatively less northward compared to larvae released 100 km at the west of the ridge (this figure and original paper). Secondly v-larvae released at the south east of the study area (red dots on the figure, right panel) disperse relatively less towards the Caribbean Sea than when released at the west (red dots of the figure, left panel). This suggests that the dispersion of European eel larvae is optimum in an area comprised between the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Sargasso Sea (our previous simulation in the original paper), and declines eastward of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (present simulation below).Figure 1Distribution of v-larvae released departure at the west (left) and east (right) of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The tracking method is the same as described in the paper, v-larvae were release within 100 km west and east of the ridge.Full size imageHanel et al. also indicate that the convergence front weakens from West, in the Sargasso Sea, to East above the ridge. We consider that this constitutes an additional argument that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is indeed at the edge of the convergence zone at the first area of the Atlantic Ocean where currents and temperatures are favourable for reproduction of eels.(Comment 3) Elevated manganese (Mn) concentrations in the otolith cores of glass eels as a hint for successful spawning only in areas with volcanic activity based on observations of Martin et al.18. However, the results from Martin et al.19 were entirely misread, resulting in a mis-interpretation of the data.(Response 3) Based on Martin et al.19, we stated that higher concentrations of Mn were found in glass eels’ otoliths collected across European estuaries than in otoliths of leptocephali larvae sampled in the Sargasso Sea. We suggested that this was the indication that glass eels were born in areas where volcanic activity produces high loads of Mn and other metals. This formed one of the arguments supporting our hypothesis that Atlantic eels could spawn in the proximity to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Thanks to Reinhold Hanel and colleagues, we realized that Martin et al.19 in fact showed that concentrations of Mn were higher in the center of otoliths of leptocephali larvae than in those of glass eels collected along the European coasts. Consequently, this argument is no longer valid. Nonetheless, otolith microchemical fingerprints significantly differ between young leptocephali sampled in the Sargasso Sea in 2008 and glass eels collected in Europe, hence suggesting that they have distinct spawning areas19. These authors indicated that the incorporation of elements from the environment to the otoliths needed to be better understood, namely as stated by Hanel et al., because of physiological and environmental control such as temperature and salinity. In addition, they outline that the dynamics of elements from the sea floor to the subsurface is not well understood and could be slow. We totally share these conclusions that are well known facts, and that simply confirm that environmental characteristics (trace element concentrations, salinity and temperature) are responsible for the elemental signature of the central part of otoliths. Hanel et al. also state that the composition of otoliths are also controlled by elemental maternal transfer from the egg to the otoliths. We are aware of this fact that has been shown is other fish species. However, the laser ablations were performed after the first feed check where maternal influence is reduced and is overruled by environment18. This supports the idea that glass eels collected in Europe do not originate from the same environments as leptocephali captured in the Sargasso Sea.(Comment 4) Insufficient sampling efforts and a limited area coverage of recent surveys as a possible reason for “false negative” observations along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This statement does not recognize the investigations by Johannes Schmidt as well as earlier and later surveys in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge area. The ICES “Eggs and Larvae database” records a total of 48 A anguilla leptocephali caught within the area 15–29 N and 43–48 W, at 10 stations between 1913 and 1970.Thanks for pointing out that larvae have been caught near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, in which larvae were not newly hatched because of their relatively large size (23–45 mm). Ocean currents were weak and could flow either eastward or westward in this region, indicating that the spawning could occur from west to east of the ridge, without considering swimming. Note that ocean currents could change directions, so that it was also possible to spawn near the ridge after been transported eastward and westward.The observed distribution of small larvae  More

Fossil remains from the Family Bovidae, such as antelopes and buffalo, are frequently used to reconstruct past environments1,2,3. Bovids reflect distinct ecological adaptations in terms of diet, habitat, water dependence, and seasonal migrations that vary according to their respective ecological niches. Widespread cooling in the late Miocene led to a major adaptive radiation of the bovids, and increasingly they began to exploit more open environments4,5,6. Thus, by approximately 4 Ma, bovids came to dominate the African fauna, replacing the previously abundant suids7,8,9. The current distribution of bovids extends across the African continent in myriad environments that differ significantly in proportions of wood and grass cover.The importance of bovid remains to paleoanthropological research was established initially by Broom10,11 and Wells and Cooke12. This dependence has been expanded and now ranges from paleodietary studies and evolutionary trends to hominin behavioral patterns13,14,15. In addition, several studies have demonstrated that changes in the relative abundance of bovid taxa reflected in fossil assemblages are indicative of fluctuations in environmental conditions, as bovids appear to be particularly responsive to environmental changes16,17,18.Bovid teeth, in particular isolated teeth, make up a majority of the southern African fossil record. Thus, bovid teeth, coupled with their ecological tendencies, are important sources of information for reconstructing the paleoenvironments associated with the fossil hominins. Taxonomic identification of fossil bovid teeth, however, is often problematic; biasing factors such as age and degree of wear complicate identifications and often result in considerable overlap in the shape and size of teeth. Traditionally, researchers rely upon modern and fossil comparative collections to identify isolated bovid teeth. However, researchers are somewhat limited by travel and the specific type and number of bovids housed at each institution. Here, we present B.O.V.I.D. (Bovidae Occlusal Visual IDentification) which is a repository of images of the occlusal surface of bovid teeth (~3900). The purpose of the database is to allow researchers to visualize a large sample of teeth from different tribes, genera, and species. The sample includes the three upper and three lower molars in multiple states of wear from the seven most common tribes in the southern African fossil record and the twenty most common species from those tribes. This design will help researchers see the natural variation that exists within a specific tooth type of a taxon and, with the current sample, help taxonomically identify extant and fossil teeth with modern counterparts. More

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Center for Microbial Communities, Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University, Aalborg, DenmarkMorten Kam Dahl Dueholm, Marta Nierychlo, Kasper Skytte Andersen, Vibeke Rudkjøbing, Simon Knutsson, Per H. Nielsen, Mads Albertsen & Per Halkjær NielsenEnvironmental Science Department, The Institute for Scientific and Technological Research of San Luis Potosi (IPICYT), San Luis Potosí, MexicoSonia ArriagaDepartment of Process, Energy and Environmental Technology, University College of Southeast Norway, Porsgrunn, NorwayRune BakkeCenter for Microbial Ecology and Technology, Ghent University, Ghent, BelgiumNico BoonInstitute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South AfricaFaizal Bux & Sheena KumariVeolia Water Technologies AB, AnoxKaldnes, Lund, SwedenMagnus ChristenssonDepartment Of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaAdeline Seak May ChuaEnvironmental Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle, EnglandThomas P. CurtisThe Cytryn Lab, Microbial Agroecology, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon Lezion, IsraelEddie CytrynINGEBI-CONICET, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, ArgentinaLeonardo ErijmanDepartment of Biochemistry and Microbial Genetics, Biological Research Institute “Clemente Estable”, Montevideo, UruguayClaudia EtchebehereNIREAS-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, CyprusDespo Fatta-KassinosEnvironmental Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, QC, CanadaDominic FrigonSchool of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, ColombiaMaria Carolina Garcia-ChavesSchool of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USAApril Z. GuWater Chemistry and Water Technology and DVGW Research Laboratories, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, GermanyHarald HornDavid Jenkins & Associates, Inc, Kensington, CA, USADavid JenkinsInstitute for Water Quality and Resource Management, TU Wien, Vienna, AustriaNorbert KreuzingerWater Innovation and Research Centre, University of Bath, Bath, EnglandAna LanhamSingapore Centre of Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE) Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, SingaporeYingyu LawWater Desalination and Reuse Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi ArabiaTorOve LeiknesProcess Engineering in Urban Water Management, ETH Zürich, Zürich, SwitzerlandEberhard MorgenrothDepartment of Biology, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, PolandAdam MuszyńskiEnvironmental Microbial Genetics Lab, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaSteve PetrovskiTechnologies and Evaluation Area, Catalan Institute for Water Research, ICRA, Girona, SpainMaite PijuanVA Tech Wabag Ltd, Chennai, IndiaSuraj Babu PillaiBiochemical Engineering Group, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, PortugalMaria A. M. ReisState Key Laboratory of Environmental Aquatic Chemistry, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaQi RongWater Research Institute IRSA – National Research Council (CNR), Rome, ItalySimona RossettiLa Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaRobert SeviourDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USANick TookerKemira Oyj, Espoo R&D Center, Espo, FinlandPirjo VainioEnvironmental Biotechnology, TU Delft, Delft, The NetherlandsMark van LoosdrechtVA Tech Wabag, Philippines Inc., Makati City, PhilippinesR. VikramanDepartment of Water Technology and Environmental Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Czech RepublicJiří WannerEnvironmental Life Science Engineering, TU Delft, Delft, The NetherlandsDavid WeissbrodtSchool of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, ChinaXianghua WenEnvironmental Biotechnology Lab, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong KongTong Zhang More

Dispersal is assumed to contribute to microbiome composition and function; however, it is difficult to measure. Walters et al. now set out a 6-month experiment looking at different dispersal routes of environmental microorganisms to the surface soil layer. They set up different ‘traps’, either glass slides or freshly cut grass, to determine the number, identity and function of incoming microorganisms. The traps ‘recorded’ dispersal through air, from plants and their litter, or from below through the decomposing litter and bulk soil. This was achieved by placing the traps either on a pedestal, closing them off at the bottom or leaving them open, respectively. The authors found that the overall dispersal rate was low, with little influence of the route, with only 0.5% incoming bacterial cells per day compared with the number of resident cells. However, the dispersal routes did influence microbiome composition, at least if from above and close to the surface. Finally, without dispersal, the initial decomposition of the cut grass was slower.
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