Philippa Kaur

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Contents of Cd and Ca in Panax notogensing rootsThe Ca content of P. notoginseng roots increased significantly with the increase of lime application rates under the same concentration of oxalic acid sprayed on leaves (Table 2). Compared with no lime application, the Ca content was the highest increased by 212% under 3750 kg hm−2 lime without spraying oxalic acid. The content of Ca slightly increased with the increase of oxalic acid spraying concentrations under the same rate of lime application.Table 2 Effects of foliar spraying of oxalic acid on contents of Cd and Ca in roots of Panax notoginseng under Cd stress.Full size tableThe contents of Cd in roots ranged from 0.22 to 0.70 mg kg−1. The content of 2250 kg hm−2 Cd decreased greatly with the increase of lime application rates under the same spraying concentration of oxalic acid. Compared with the control, the root Cd contents decreased by 68.57% under the application of 2250 kg hm−2 lime and 0.1 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying. The Cd contents of P. notoginseng roots decreased significantly with the increase of oxalic acid spraying concentrations under application of non-lime and 750 kg hm−2 lime. The root Cd contents decreased at first and then increased with the increase of oxalic acid concentrations under the application of 2250 kg hm−2 lime and 3750 kg hm−2 lime. In addition, the Bivariate analysis showed that the Ca content of P. notoginseng roots was significantly affected by lime (F = 82.84**), and the Cd content of P. notoginseng roots was significantly affected by lime (F = 74.99**) and oxalic acid (F = 7.72*).MDA contents and relative antioxidase activitiesThe content of MDA decreased greatly with the increase of the rates of lime application and oxalic acid spraying concentrations. There was no significant difference in the content of MDA in the roots of P. notoginseng with non-lime and 3750 kg hm−2 lime application. Under 750 kg hm−2, 2250 kg hm−2 lime application, the MDA content with 0.2 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying concentration treatment decreased by 58.38% and 40.21% comparing with non-oxalic acid spraying application, respectively. The content of MDA (7.57 nmol g−1) was the lowest under 750 kg hm−2 lime application and 0.2 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying treatment (Fig. 1).Figure 1Effects of foliar spraying of oxalic acid on contents of malondialdehyde in roots of Panax notoginseng under Cd stress. Notes The figure legend showed the spray concentration of oxalic acid (mol L−1), different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments at the same lime application rate (P  Rb1  > R1. The contents of the three saponins had no significant difference with increase of the concentrations of oxalic acid spraying and no application of lime (Table 4).Table 4 Effects of foliar oxalate application on the percentages of three saponins in roots of Panax notoginseng under Cd stress.Full size tableThe contents of R1 with 0.2 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying was significantly lower than that without oxalic acid spraying and rates of 750 or 3750 kg hm−2 lime application. Under the concentration of 0 or 0.1 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying, there was no significant difference in contents of R1 with increase of rates of lime application. Under the concentration of 0.2 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying, the contents of R1 with 3750 kg hm−2 lime was significantly lower 43.84% than that without lime application (Table 4).The contents of Rg1 increased at first and then decreased with the increase of oxalic acid spraying concentrations and 750 kg hm−2 lime application. Under the application rates of 2250 or 3750 kg hm−2 lime, the contents of Rg1 decreased with the increase of oxalic acid spraying concentration. With the same concentration of oxalic acid spraying, the Rg1 content increased at first and then decreased with the increase of lime application rates. Compared with the control, except that the Rg1 content with three concentrations of oxalic acid spraying and 750 kg hm−2 lime was higher than that of the control, the contents of Rg1 in the roots of P. notoginseng under other treatments was lower than that of the control. The Rg1 content was the highest with 750 kg hm−2 lime and 0.1 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying treatment, which was higher 11.54% than that of the control (Table 4).The contents of Rb1 increased first and then decreased with the increase of oxalic acid spraying concentration and 2250 kg hm−2 lime application. The content of Rb1 with 0.1 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying reached the maximum value of 3.46%, which was higher 74.75% than that without oxalic acid spraying treatment. Under other lime application treatments, there was no significant difference among different oxalic acid spraying concentrations. With 0.1 and 0.2 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying treatments, the contents of Rb1 decreased at first and then decreased with the increase of lime application rates (Table 4).Contents of flavonoidsWith the same concentration of oxalic acid spraying, the content of flavonoids increased at first and then decreased with the increase of the amounts of lime application. There was no significant difference in the content of flavonoids under different concentrations of oxalic acid spraying without the application of lime or 3750 kg hm−2 lime. Under 750 and 2250 kg hm−2 lime application, the content of flavonoids increased at first and then decreased with the increase of the concentration of oxalic acid spraying. Under the treatment of 750 kg hm−2 application and 0.1 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying, the content of flavonoids was the highest, which was 4.38 mg g−1, which was higher 18.38% than that of the same rate of lime application and without spraying oxalic acid. The content of flavonoids with 0.1 mol L−1 oxalic acid spraying treatment increased by 21.74% compared with that without oxalic acid spraying treatment and 2250 kg hm−2 lime application (Fig. 5).Figure 5Effects of foliar spraying of oxalate on the contents of flavonoids in roots of Panax notoginseng under Cd stress.Full size imageBivariate analysis showed that the content of soluble sugar in P. notoginseng root was significantly relationship with the amount of lime application and the concentration of oxalic acid spraying. The content of soluble protein in root was significantly relationship with lime application rates, both of lime and oxalic acid. The contents of free amino acid and proline in roots were significantly relationship with lime application rates, oxalic acid spraying concentrations, both of lime and oxalic acid (Table 5).Table 5 Variance analysis of the effects of oxalic acid, calcium and cadmium on the contents of multiple medicinal ingredients in the roots of Panax notoginseng (F value).Full size tableThe content of R1 in the root of P. notoginseng was significantly relationship with oxalic acid spraying concentrations, lime application rates, both of lime and oxalic acid. The content of flavonoids was significantly relationship with oxalic acid spraying concentrations, lime application rates. More

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Lehtonen12 presents three simple models with the same broad structure: a single mutant individual with divergent mating behaviour arises in a population of ‘residents’ that all play the same strategy, and the success of that mutant is then followed (Figs. 1, 2). Specifically, Lehtonen investigates the fitness benefits of increased mating for mutant males in comparison to mutant females. Two important parameters can be varied: (i) the degree of anisogamy (defined here as the ratio of sperm number to egg number), which captures how divergent males and females are in the size (and thus number) of gametes they produce, and (ii) the efficiency of fertilisation, which determines how easily gametes can find and fuse with each other. If fertilisation is highly efficient, then gametes of the less numerous type will achieve nearly full fertilisation; on the other hand, inefficient fertilisation can result in gametes of both sexes going unfertilised.Fig. 2: Structure of the three models of Lehtonen12, showing differences in mating behaviour between resident males (green), resident females (blue) and mutant males and females (both yellow).For illustration, we suppose that females produce four eggs each and males produce eight sperm (the anisogamy ratio in nature is typically much higher). In Model 1, resident individuals spawn monogamously in a ‘nest’ (black outline), whereas mutant males and females can bring additional partners to their nest to spawn in a group. In Model 2, resident individuals divide their gametes equally among m spawning groups, each consisting of m individuals of each sex (shown here with m = 2). Mutant males and females instead divide their gametes among a larger or smaller number of groups, mmutant (shown here with mmutant = 4). In Model 3, there is a further sex asymmetry in addition to anisogamy: Fertilisation takes place inside the female’s body. Resident individuals mate with m partners (shown here with m = 2), whereas mutant males and females mate with a larger or smaller number of partners, mmutant (shown here with mmutant = 4).Full size imageIn the first two models, fertilisation is external and no assumptions are made about pre-existing differences between the sexes apart from the number of gametes they produce. In other words, males and females are identical except that males produce sperm in greater numbers than females produce eggs. In Model 1, resident individuals are assumed to mate monogamously, whereas a mutant can monopolise multiple partners of the opposite sex (Fig. 2). Importantly, both male and female mutants can bring additional partners back to their ‘nest’ to spawn in a group. When fertilisation is highly efficient, females can fertilise all of their eggs by bringing back a single male, and there is simply no benefit (in this model) of seeking further partners (Fig. 1A). In contrast, anisogamy means that males always produce at least some gametes in excess, and thus can benefit from seeking additional mates. When fertilisation is inefficient, however, both sexes benefit from increasing the concentration of opposite-sex gametes at their ‘nest’ (Fig. 1B). This latter benefit is sex-symmetric, whereas the former continues to apply only to males. As a consequence, the Bateman gradients are always steeper for males than for females (Fig. 1A, B), confirming Bateman’s argument.Model 2 similarly assumes external fertilisation, but in this case the resident males and females meet in groups consisting of m individuals of each sex (Fig. 2). Fertilisation occurs via group spawning. It is assumed that each resident individual divides its gametes evenly across M groups, whereas mutant individuals can instead spread their gametes over a larger or smaller number of groups (note that the author assumes that M = m, but this assumption could be relaxed without undermining the core argument). Spreading gametes out across a larger number of spawning groups does not increase the concentration of opposite-sex gametes they encounter (Fig. 2). However, a mutant that spreads its gametes more widely reduces the density of its own gametes across those groups in which it spawns. This in turn results in there being more opposite-sex gametes for each gamete of the mutant’s sex in those groups. For example, in Fig. 2, mutant males spawn in twice as many groups as resident males and thereby halve the density of their own sperm in each group. The resulting egg-to-sperm ratio of (frac{4}{6}=frac{2}{3}) is more favourable than the ratio of (frac{4}{8}=frac{1}{2}) that the resident males experience. Mutant females can similarly increase local sperm-to-egg ratios by spreading their eggs over more groups. However, in contrast to males, this only leads to fitness benefit if fertilisation is inefficient, and even then the benefit to females is very modest (scarcely perceptible in Fig. 1D). Gamete spreading reduces wasteful competition among the mutants’ own gametes for fertilisation. Such ‘local’ gamete competition, like gamete competition more generally, is stronger among sperm than among eggs because sperm are more numerous under anisogamy13,14. Consequently, as in Model 1, Bateman gradients are always steeper in males (Fig. 1C, D). Recall that the results of the above models emerge in the absence of any assumptions beyond the sex difference in the number of gametes produced.The third and final model allows for a further pre-existing difference between the sexes in addition to anisogamy: internal fertilisation, which is common and widespread in animals (Fig. 2)15. Each female is assumed to mate with m males, while each male divides his gametes evenly among m females. As in the previous two models, males benefit more than females from additional matings under most conditions. However, in the particular case where fertilisation is highly inefficient and the ratio of sperm to eggs is not too large, the pattern can theoretically reverse, such that female Bateman gradients exceed their male counterparts (Fig. 1F). The reason is that the effects of gamete concentration are asymmetric under internal fertilisation: Multiple mating by a female increases the local concentration of sperm its eggs experience, whereas a male’s multiple mating does not increase the concentration of eggs around its sperm (Fig. 2). Under conditions of severe sperm limitation—due to both weak anisogamy and highly inefficient fertilisation—this can lead to females benefitting more from additional matings than males (Fig. 1F). Although intriguing, it is unclear whether this finding has any empirical relevance, as sperm limitation is probably rarely severe in internal fertilisers. Under more realistic conditions of moderate to high fertilisation rates, sex differences in the degree of local gamete competition once again become decisive, and male Bateman gradients exceed their female counterparts (Fig. 1E). More