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Lombardo et al. argue that, if our hypothesis is correct, ADEs should be continuous rather than patchy. However, alluvium deposition can be a patchy process and the distribution of large and small ADE patches can be predicted regionally based on fluvial geomorphology. For example, 89% of all known ADEs have been predictively mapped using elevation, distance to bluff, and geological provenance as the key predictors (with a false negative rate of 6.5% and a false positive rate of 4.7%)10. Predicted areas include small and large ADE patches, up to several square kilometres in size, and indicate that ADEs cover ~154,000 km2 mostly in central and western Amazonia. This may seem to be a very large area ( >3% of the Amazon basin) but it is only a fraction of the projections found in some of the most cited anthropogenic theory literature11. Assuming the same excess fertility observed at our site, the creation of those ADEs would have required a prohibitive amount of biomass burning, in areas 800–1680 times larger (Fig. 1), which is inconsistent with the centralised small-scale deposition proposed by Lombardo et al. In this regional scenario, it remains unclear how many Amazons would have been needed to build the already-mapped ADEs.Lombardo et al. centre their opinion on settlements in other parts of the Amazon basin, under different socioecological and geomorphological contexts, and where the data we have developed are not available for comparison. Their narrative conflates the Brazilian lowland with other regions, such as the Llanos de Moxos and other systems in the Bolivian-Peruvian foreland basins, where older archeological sites occur. Their comments about the mineral composition of ADEs appear to contradict recent discoveries (made by some of their co-authors)12 which show that some oxides found at our ADE site bear “no relationship to anthropogenic activity” because “their sources are attributed to the weathering of micas, feldspars, mafic minerals (pyroxene), and sodic plagioclase” that are not found locally. To explain the inconsistency between those findings and the current theory of ADE formation, Macedo et al. argue that “sediment depositions in floodplain soils” that “are not related to human occupation” should be considered. That suggestion is consistent with our data which indicate deposition of exogenous materials to the site prior to the invention of agriculture in central Amazonia.Our study area is on a Tertiary terrace, and we acknowledge in our paper that it lies above the modern 100-year flood height for Manaus. However, significant Pleistocene and Holocene tectonic activity and river aggradation/degradation demonstrably affected the flood height over time. A complex neotectonic history has affected terrace elevations, nutrient deposition, and remobilisation, as well as flood heights and aggradation, resulting in higher base levels that were many metres above flood waters today in past millennia13,14,15. In addition, rivers transported and dispersed sediments from the Andes to the lowland, which were re-mobilised, and re-deposited in patchy patterns, from floodplains several times between 20 and 5 thousand years ago16,17,18. Such mineral inputs by past avulsion events may have occurred earlier in the Quaternary and remain as a relict soil where it has not subsequently eroded19. The older weathered sediments on the upper terraces lining the river look nothing like recent alluvium and the distribution of elements and their assemblages at our site are consistent with alluvial deposits in other sites. This process is explained in studies cited by Lombardo et al. (e.g., Pupim et al.), which note several periods of river aggradation, that support our hypothesis.As explained in our original paper, our data do not preclude a more recent human effect on the local landscape. The wisdom of indigenous populations, manifested in the application of waste materials to agricultural sites (since at least the late Holocene), may have further enriched ADEs or countered their natural degradation. Recent studies12, 16, 17, which post-date the studies that Lombardo et al. cite to argue against a geogenic influence, reveal a dynamic neotectonic history and support our hypothesis. Thus, the extent to which other ADE sites originated from depositional processes should be investigated based on evidence that goes beyond those presented by Lombardo et al. More

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Kangaroo Island (~ 4400 km2, KI hereafter) is the third largest island in Australia. It underwent substantial land clearing, and consequent fragmentation of the natural bushland habitat, after World War II1,2. Relatively intact western KI was eventually identified as a key biodiversity hotspot3, home to several endangered and endemic native species including the KI dunnart.Dunnarts (Sminthopsis spp.) are small insectivorous dasyurid marsupials. The KI dunnart is distinguished from the other 17 dunnart species found in Australia by morphological features, including manus, pes, and penis shape4. This endangered species is the only dasyurid found on the island, exclusively resident in ~ 342 km2 before 20205, and found nowhere else in the world2. The species is rarely recorded, with only 28 individuals found during  > 33,000 trap-nights pre-20195. With a low number of individuals restricted to a small geographic area, the KI dunnart is exceptionally vulnerable to stochastic events. Predation by feral cats (Felis catus) is likely to be another source of pressure on the KI dunnart. Cats were introduced to KI during European settlement and quickly became apex predators, reaching higher relative abundance than adjacent mainland6 with an estimated density of 0.37 ± 0.15 cat/km25. Cat predation has been the cause for extinction or near-extinction of several native species around the globe7, with the extinction risk becoming increasingly acute in insular islands like KI. Cat predation on islands has contributed to  > 13% of globally recorded extinction events, accounting for  > 8% of instances within these taxa of species being pushed to critically endangered status8. A recent meta-analysis found evidence of cat predation for three critically endangered species and four endangered species in Australia on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species7.Australian bushfires in 2019–2020 burnt ~ 97,000 km2 of vegetation9,10, with damage overlapping with habitats of  > 100 threatened species. Dry lightning storms in the remote and vegetated northwest of the Island started the bushfire in the KI. The bushfire eventually spread easterly, burning approximately 98% of the known and predicted habitat of the KI dunnart10.In this study, we have analysed the diet of feral cats humanely euthanized in designated areas of local conservation interest immediately after the 2019 KI bushfire. More