Philippa Kaur

Ambitious new targets are needed to conserve nature by protecting parks and species.Credit: Tang Dehong/VCG/Getty

It will take ample time and money to slow the world’s catastrophic loss of plant and animal species — and right now, both are running dangerously low. This year, nations are due to agree to an action plan to protect global biodiversity at the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. But the meeting is already two years late because of the pandemic, and China, which will host the conference in Kunming, has yet to set a new date.Now, conflicts over financing are adding to the tension. Conservation groups and advocates suggest that rich nations must donate at least US$60 billion annually to help less-affluent ones to fund projects such as protecting areas where wildlife can thrive and tackling the illegal wildlife trade that is driving hundreds of species to extinction. This is much more than the $4 billion to $10 billion that they are estimated to be spending today, and well below the amount they are giving low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) to fight climate change, which reached around $50 billion in 2019 according to one estimate. Yet limited overseas development funds are spread ever thinner as donors deal with the pandemic and now the fallout from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. This is where COP15 is meant to deliver: as well as agreeing to the action plan, called the Global Biodiversity Framework, nations will be encouraged to pledge more money.A mix of public and private money has started to trickle in. Currently, biodiversity funding on the table ahead of COP15 amounts to roughly $5.2 billion per year, according to estimates by a group of five leading conservation organizations. Most comes from six governments, including France, the United Kingdom and Japan, and the European Union. In April, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) — a multilateral fund to support international environmental agreements — announced that, over the next four years, around $1.9 billion will go to projects dedicated to biodiversity. However, it’s unclear how much of this will come from the coffers that donor countries have already pledged.Some cash for conservation is coming from private philanthropic donors — such as $2 billion committed by entrepreneur Jeff Bezos last year. And starting in 2020, a group of financial institutions (now 89 of them) promised to annually report their financing activities and investments that affect biodiversity, and to move away from those that do harm — a form of ecological accounting that could help to shrink the budget needed to protect biodiversity. Donors will need to reach much deeper into their pockets to meet the demands of LMICs, the custodians of much of the world’s biodiversity. In March, a group of LMICs, led by Gabon, asked for $100 billion per year in new funding when officials met in Geneva, Switzerland, to discuss progress on the Global Biodiversity Framework. The LMICs want the money placed in a new multilateral fund for biodiversity, separate from, but complementary to, the GEF.Aside from cash, the fund will need to find a new home and structure — and there are a few options. A proposal from Brazil, circulated at the Geneva meeting, suggests the fund be governed by a board of 24 members, with an equal number from rich and lower-income nations. The board would be responsible for funding decisions and would prioritize projects that help to achieve the biodiversity convention’s goals. The pitch generated interest among some countries, but also concerns that it’s an attempt by Brazil to divert attention from its failure over the past few years to protect the Amazon rainforest and prevent other environmental harm.Another option is the Kunming Biodiversity Fund, which China announced in October last year to help LMICs to safeguard their ecosystems. It allocated 1.5 billion yuan (US$223 million) to seed the fund and invited other countries to contribute, but so far none has. Sources knowledgeable about the fund say that donor countries are reluctant to pitch in because China is holding on too tightly to the reins and is not involving others in its deliberations. Details of how the fund will operate are scarce, but Nature has learnt that China is floating the idea of housing it at the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), based in Beijing. Set up in 2016, the AIIB has $100 billion in total capital and 105 members, including Germany, France and the United Kingdom. The AIIB has big green plans. By 2025, it wants half of all infrastructure projects it finances to focus on climate issues. With rigorous oversight and transparency, the AIIB would make a good home for the Kunming fund.As countries prepare to meet in Nairobi on 20–26 June in a last-ditch attempt to push the biodiversity framework forwards before COP15, China, as the host, must urgently provide stronger leadership on financing, including more transparency and engagement. Progress will require quick, generous contributions from donor nations — which should prioritize grants, not loans, for biodiversity projects.Holding the COP15 meeting must be a priority, too. As China tightens restrictions in the face of a COVID-19 surge, some researchers fear that delays will stretch on, stalling conservation work and leaving less time to meet biodiversity targets. China must either commit to holding the meeting this year or let it proceed elsewhere. One option being quietly discussed is moving the meeting to Canada — home of the United Nations biodiversity convention’s secretariat — and this deserves consideration. The world needs an ambitious biodiversity plan now — nature cannot wait. More

This Hubble image captures a set of galaxies that are unusual because they seem not to have dark matter.Credit: NASA/ESA/P. van Dokkum, Yale Univ.

Galaxies without dark matter baffle astronomersScientists have long thought that galaxies cannot form without the gravitational pull of the mysterious material known as dark matter. But one group of astronomers thinks it might have observed a line of 11 galaxies that don’t contain any of the substance, and could all have been created in an ancient collision (P. van Dokkum et al. Nature 605, 435–439; 2022).This kind of system could be used to learn about how galaxies form, and about the nature of dark matter itself. However, some researchers are not convinced that the claim is much more than a hypothesis.The finding centres on two galaxies, called DF2 and DF4, that were described in 2018 and 2019. Their stars moved so slowly that the pull of dark matter was not needed to explain their orbits, so the team concluded that the galaxies contained no dark matter.In the latest research, scientists identified between three and seven new candidates for dark-matter-free galaxies in a line between DF2 and DF4, as well as strange, faint galaxies at either end.“If proven right, this could certainly be exciting for galaxy formation. However, the jury is still out,” says Chervin Laporte, an astronomer at the University of Barcelona in Spain.Northern Australian tree deaths double in 35 yearsThe rate at which trees are dying in the old-growth tropical forests of northern Australia each year has doubled since the 1980s, and researchers say climate change is probably to blame.The findings, published in Nature on 18 May, come from an extraordinary record of tree deaths catalogued at 24 sites in the tropical forests of northern Queensland over the past 49 years (D. Bauman et al. Nature https://doi.org/hv67; 2022).The research team recorded that 2,305 trees across 81 key species had died since 1971. But from the mid-1980s, tree mortality risk increased from an average of 1% a year to 2% a year (see ‘Increasing death rate’). Of the 81 tree species that the team studied, 70% showed an increase in mortality risk over the study period.The study found that the rise in death rate occurred at the same time as a long-term trend of increases in the atmospheric vapour pressure deficit, which is the difference between the amount of water vapour that the atmosphere can hold and the amount of water it does hold at a given time. The higher the deficit, the more water trees lose through their leaves, which can lead to sustained stress and eventually tree death.

Europe’s first farming populations descend mostly from farmers in the Anatolian peninsula, in what is now Turkey.Credit: Fatih Kurt/Anadolu Agency/Getty

Ancient DNA maps ‘dawn of farming’Sometime before 12,000 years ago, nomadic hunter-gatherers in the Middle East made one of the most important transitions in human history: they began staying put and took to farming.Two ancient-DNA studies have now homed in on the identity of the hunter-gatherers who settled down.Researchers sequenced the genomes of 15 hunter-gatherers and early farmers who lived in southwest Asia and Europe, along a key migration routes into Europe — the Danube River (N. Marchi et al. Cell https://doi.org/gp49rr; 2022).The team found that ancient farmers in Anatolia — now Turkey — descended from repeated mixing between distinct hunter-gatherer groups from Europe and the Middle East. These groups first split at the height of the last Ice Age, some 25,000 years ago. Modelling suggests that the western groups nearly died out, before rebounding as the climate warmed.Once established in Anatolia, the researchers found, early farmers moved west into Europe in a stepping-stone-like way, beginning around 8,000 years ago. They mixed occasionally — but not extensively — with local hunter-gatherers.The findings chime with those of a similar ancient-genomics study posted on the bioRxiv preprint server this month (M. E. Allentoft. et al. Preprint at bioRxiv https://doi.org/hv7g; 2022). More

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None of the 21 targets of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set for 2020 was achieved. But, by our calculations, the target to protect 10% of the global ocean area (SDG14, target 5) could become a reality this year.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests. More

Ethics statementThe data collection and experiments were conducted in accordance with the collecting permits (SGPA/DGVS/07946/08, 03369/12, 00228/13, 07587/13, 01629/16, 01205/17, 02490/17, 06768/17, 000998/18, 002463/18, 002490/18, 002491/18, 003209/18, and 02523/19) approved by Dirección General de Vida Silvestre, México.Phylogeny and divergence time estimationTo estimate the phylogeny and divergence time among phrynosomatid species we used sequences of five mitochondrial and eight nuclear genes available in GenBank for 149 taxa (Supplementary Data 2). Accession numbers were the same as those used in Martínez-Méndez et al.58 for the Sceloporus torquatus, S. poinsettii and S. megalepidurus groups and the same as those in Wiens et al.59 for other phrynosomatid species. For taxa not included in the previous references, we searched GenBank for available sequences. We then performed alignments for each gene using MAFFT (ver. 7)60 and concatenation and manual refinement using Mesquite (ver. 3.6);61 obtaining a concatenated matrix of 9837 bp for 149 taxa (Supplementary Data 3). For the relaxed clock analyses, three nodes were calibrated using lognormal distributions based on two previous studies59,62. The first calibration was set for the Sceloporus clade (offset 15.97 million years ago (MYA)) based on a fossil Sceloporus specimen63). The second calibration point was set for the Phrynosoma clade (offset 33.3 MYA) based on the fossil Paraphrynosoma greeni64, and the last calibration point was for the Holbrookia-Cophosaurus stem group (offset 15.97 MYA) given the fossil Holbrookia antiqua63. We conducted dating analysis with the concatenated sequences matrix, partitioned the mitochondrial and nuclear information, each gene under GTR + I + Γ model, and allowed independent parameter estimation. We performed Bayesian age estimation with the uncorrelated lognormal relaxed clock (UCLN) model in BEAST (ver. 2.5.2)65,66 and run on CIPRES67. Tree prior (evolutionary model) was under the Birth-Death model, and we ran two MCMC analyses for 100 million generations each and stored every 20,000 generations. We assessed the convergence and stationarity of chains from the posterior distribution using Tracer (ver. 1.7)68. We combined independent runs using LogCombiner (ver. 2.5.2; BEAST distribution)69 and discarded 30% of samples as burn-in, obtaining values of effective sample size (ESS) greater than 200. We estimated the maximum clade credibility tree from all post-burnin trees using TreeAnnotator (ver. 1.8.4)69. The ultrametric tree is available as Supplementary Data 4. As we describe below, we accounted for phylogenetic uncertainty in our models by reperforming analyses using 500 trees that we randomly sampled from our posterior distribution. The 500 sampled trees are available as Supplementary Data 5.Data collectionParity modeWe categorized each species as either oviparous or viviparous based on previously published databases21,37,51,70, published references, and unpublished data (Supplementary Data 1). Our assignations align with other studies, except for one species, Sceloporus goldmani, which has been previously considered a viviparous species21,71,72,73. The only available sequence in GenBank (U88290) for that species is from a male (MZFC-05458) collected in Coahuila, Mexico72. However, in that same locality, one of us (F. R. Méndez-de la Cruz; unpubl. data) collected two females of the same species, and both laid eggs. Thus, the population of S. goldmani herein included is considered oviparous. Considering S. goldmani viviparous increases the number of originations of viviparity to 6 (from 5) in this lineage (Supplementary Fig. 4), but does not alter the outcome of our model-fitting analyses of trait evolution (Supplementary Table 7).Thermal physiologyWe compiled a database of four thermal physiological traits that influence the performance and fitness of ectotherms74 for 104 phrynosomatid species. These data were gathered from both published sources and from our own field and laboratory work (Supplementary Data 1). The thermal physiological traits we examined were the field body temperature (Tb) of active lizards, the preferred body temperature (Tpref) in a laboratory thermal gradient75, cold tolerance (critical thermal minimum, CTmin), and heat tolerance (critical thermal maximum, CTmax). These latter two traits (CTmin and CTmax) describe the thermal limits of locomotion; specifically, they describe the lower and upper temperatures, respectively, at which lizards fail to right themselves when flipped onto their backs55,76. To minimize the confounding effects of experimental design, we limited our data selection to species that were measured with similar methods. Correspondingly, our new data collection approach mirrored that of the published studies from which we extracted data. To obtain mean values for each thermal physiological trait (CTmin, Tb, Tpref, and CTmax) we did not mix data measured from different locations (instead, we used data from the population with the highest sample size).For species that we newly measured thermal physiological traits, we obtained the data as we describe below, and we based our methodology on the previous work55,56,75,76. We captured active (perching) adult lizards by lasso or by hand, and immediately ( More

Author notesThese authors contributed equally: AM Carpenter, BA Graham.Authors and AffiliationsUniversity of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, CanadaA. M. Carpenter, B. A. Graham & T. M. BurgBiological Sciences Department, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USAA. M. CarpenterDenver Museum of Nature and Science, Denver, CO, USAG. M. SpellmanAuthorsA. M. CarpenterB. A. GrahamG. M. SpellmanT. M. BurgCorresponding authorCorrespondence to
A. M. Carpenter. More

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