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    Urban blue–green space landscape ecological health assessment based on the integration of pattern, process, function and sustainability

    Study areaHarbin is located in the centre of Northeast Asia, between 44°04’–46° 40′ N and 125° 42′–130° 10′ E24,26. The site has a mid-temperate continental monsoon climate, with an average annual temperature of 3.6° C and an average annual precipitation is 569.1 mm. The main precipitation months being from June to September, accounting for about 60% of the annual precipitation, the main snow months are from November to January24,25. The overall topography is high in the east and low in the west, with mountains and hills predominating in the east and plains predominating in the west27. In this study, we identified the central district of Harbin, where urban construction activities are frequent and the population is dense, as the study area. According to the “Harbin City Urban Master Plan (2011–2020)” (revised draft in 2017), the specific scope includes Daoli District, Daowai District, Nangang District, Xiangfang District, Pingfang District, Songbei District’s administrative district, Hulan District, and Acheng District part of the area, with a total area of 4187 km2 (Fig. 2). The blue–green space in this study included woodland, grassland, cultivated land, wetland and water that permeate inside and outside the construction sites. They all have integrated functions such as ecology, supply, beautification, culture, and disaster prevention and avoidance, and have a decisive influence on the urban ecological environment.Figure 2Schematic of study area. The Figure is created using ArcGIS ver.10.2 (https://www.esri.com/).Full size imageData sourcesThe data used in this research included the following: land-cover date (30 m × 30 m) of two periods (2011, 2020) spported by the China Geographic National Conditions Data Cloud Platform (http://www.dsac.cn/), Meteorological datasets (1 km × 1 km) were obtained from the Resource and Environmental Science Data Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (http:∥www.resdc.cn/), including air temperature, precipitation, and surface runoff. ASTER GDFM elevation data (30 m × 30 m) came from the Geospatial Data Cloud (http:∥www.gscloud.cn), from which the slope was extracted. Soil data (1 km × 1 km) were from the World Soil Database (HWSD) China Soil Data Set (v1.1). The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and modified normalized difference water index (MNDWI) data (30 m × 30 m) came from the National Comprehensive Earth Observation Data Sharing Platform (http://www.chinageoss.org/), ET datasets (30 m × 30 m) were drawn from the NASA-USGS (https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/). Social and economic data were mainly obtained through the Harbin statistical yearbook and the Harbin social and economic bulletin.Framework of urban blue–green space LEH assessmentUrban blue–green space is a politically defined man-land coupling region composed of ecological, economic, and social systems, which is greatly disturbed by human activities11. The essence of urban blue–green space LEH is that the landscape ecological function sustainably meets human needs28,29. The landscape ecological function reflects the value orientation of human beings to blue–green space, and to a large extent affects the blue–green landscape ecological pattern and process. The interaction between the blue–green landscape ecological pattern and process drives the overall dynamics of blue–green space. Meanwhile, presenting certain landscape ecological function characteristics, which provide ecological support for various human activities30,31,32. While the pattern and process of blue–green space both profoundly influence and are influenced by human activities33,34. This influence is long-term, the standard of LEH should not be fixed in real-time health, but should fully consider the sustainability of the health state.In summary, the landscape ecological pattern, process, function, and sustainability are not separate, but a complex of mutual integration, and organic unity. In this study, we constructed an integrated assessment framework of blue–green space LEH that included four units: pattern, process, service, and sustainability (Fig. 3). In the assessment framework, the LEH of urban blue–green space involves two dimensions: the first is the health status of the urban blue–green space itself, emphasizing the maintenance of the ecological conditions, thereby potentially satisfying a series of diversity goals. The other is that urban blue–green space, as a part of social and economic development, could sustainably provide the ability to meet (subject) needs and goals.Figure 3Key units, interactions of urban blue–green space LEH.Full size imageLandscape ecological patternThe landscape ecological pattern of urban blue–green space is a spatial mosaic combination of landscape elements at different levels or the same level. Affected by human activities interference31, the landscape ecological pattern shows the changing trend of landscape structure complexity, landscape type diversification, and landscape fragmentation. The assessment of urban landscape ecological pattern should be a comprehensive reflection of this changing trend1. Landscape pattern indexes are the most frequently applied which could reflect the structural composition and spatial configuration characteristics of the landscape4,35. This study took landscape ecology as the entry point and selected the landscape pattern indexes that can quantitatively reflect the change characteristics of landscape structural composition and spatial configuration under the disturbance. In this way, the landscape disturbance index (U), landscape connectivity index (CON), and landscape adaptability index (LAI) were used as the indexes for the assessment of landscape ecological pattern health.

    (1)

    Landscape disturbance index (U)

    There are two kinds of relationships between the landscape ecological pattern and the external disturbance: compatibility and conflict. As the landscape ecological pattern has accommodating characteristics, the disturbance beyond the accommodating capacity will degrade the landscape ecological pattern36,37. The landscape disturbance index (U) could characterize the degree of fragmentation, dispersion, and morphological changes in landscape pattern38. The index is a comprehensive index that can reflect the health of the landscape pattern by quantifying the ability of ecosystems to accommodate external disturbances. It consists of the landscape fragmentation index, the inverse of the fractional dimension, and the dominance index. They measure the response of the landscape pattern to external disturbance from the perspective of different landscape types, the same landscape type, and landscape diversity, respectively36,38, and their weights were determined by the entropy weight method. The formula is as follows:$$ U = alpha N_{{{Fi}}} + bD_{{{Fi}}} + cD_{{{Oi}}} $$
    (1)
    where NFi is the landscape fragmentation index, DFi is the inverse of the fractional dimension, DOi is the dominance index, and a, b, and c are the corresponding weights, which were 0.20, 0.5, and 0.3 in this study, respectively.

    (2)

    Landscape connectivity index (CON)

    The most direct result of landscape ecological pattern degradation caused by external disturbance is that the flow of energy, material, and information among ecological patches is reduced or even blocked, ultimately the stability of the landscape pattern is decreased. The connectivity could characterize the ability of landscape ecological pattern to mitigate risk transmission, which is significant for the dynamic stability of landscape ecological pattern39,40. The landscape connectivity index (CON) could measure the connectivity between ecosystem components through the aggregation or dispersion trend of patches41. The better the connectivity, the stronger the stability of landscape ecological pattern. The formula is as follows:$$ CON = frac{{100sumlimits_{s = 1}^{q} {sumlimits_{h ne l}^{p} {C_{{{shl}}} } } }}{{sumlimits_{s = 1}^{s} {left[ {q_{{s}} (q_{{s}} – 1)/2} right]} }} $$
    (2)
    where qs is the number of plaques of patch type s, Cshl is the link between patch h and patch l in s within the delimited distance.

    (3)

    Landscape Restorability Index (LRI)

    The ability to recover to its original structure when subjected to disturbances is an important criterion for the landscape ecological pattern42. Research confirmed that the restorability of the landscape ecological pattern is closely related to the structure, function, diversity, and uniformity of distribution. The landscape restorability index (LRI) combines the above landscape information and could indicate the restorability of the landscape ecological pattern in response to disturbance43. The index consists of the patch density, Shannon diversity index, and the landscape evenness, the patch density is the number of patches per square kilometer. The Shannon diversity index reflects the change in the proportion of landscape types. The landscape evenness index shows the distribution evenness of patches in terms of area. The larger the LRI index, the more complex and evenly distributed the structure is, and the more recovery ability of the landscape pattern against disturbance is. The formula is as follows:$$ LRI = PD times SHDI times SHEI $$
    (3)
    where PD is the patch density, SHDI is the Shannon diversity index, and SHEI is the landscape evenness index.Landscape ecological processThe landscape ecological process of urban blue–green space is extremely complex for it involves multiple factors such as natural ecology, economy, and culture. Landscape ecological process assessment is the measure of the self-organized capacity and the efficiency of ecological processes within and among patches44. A blue–green space with a healthy landscape ecological process should have the ability to adapt to conventional land use under human management and maintain physiological integrity while maintaining the balance of ecological components. Specifically, the landscape ecological process could quickly restore its balance after severe disturbances, with strong organization, suitability, recoverability, and low sensitivity45,46. A single model hardly to gets good research on landscape ecological process under the urban scale. The comprehensive application of multidisciplinary methods is effective means to solve the problem. Regarding this, we selected ecological indexes and models from four aspects: organization, suitability, restoration, and sensitivity to assess the landscape ecological process of urban blue–green space.

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    Organization index (O)

    The organization of the landscape ecological process is the maintenance ability of stable and orderly material cycling and energy flow within and between landscapes47. The normalized vegetation index (NDVI) and the modified normalized difference water index (MNDWI) could reflect the efficiency and order of ecological processes. Such as accumulation of organic matter, fixation of solar energy, nutrient cycling, regeneration, and metabolism13. The indexes are the external performance of the internal dynamics and organizational capabilities of the ecological process. In recent years, it has been widely used in the assessment of related to landscape ecological process. The formulas are as follows:$$ NDVI = frac{NIR – R}{{NIR + R}} $$$$ MNDWI = frac{p(green) – p(MIR)}{{p(green) + p(MIR)}} $$
    (4)
    where (NDVI) is the normalized vegetation index, (MNDWI) is the modified water body index, (NIR) is the reflectance value in the near-infrared band, (R) is the reflectance value in the visible channel, (p(green)) and (p(MIR)) are the normalized values in the green and mid-infrared bands.

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    Suitability index (Q)

    The suitability of the landscape ecological process is a measurement of the self-regulating ability of the landscape ecosystem. That is, to effectively maintain the ecological process in a state of being protected from disturbance during the occasional changes caused by the external environment2. The water conservation amount index (Q) can measure the operating capacity of ecosystems to maintain ecological balance, water conservation, climate regulation, and other ecological processes by integrating the water balance of rainfall, surface runoff, and evaporation41. It could reflect the suitability of landscape ecological process to regional environment and developmental conditions. The formula is as follows:$$ Q = R – J – ET $$
    (5)
    where Q is the water conservation amount, R is the annual rainfall, J is the surface runoff, ET is the evapotranspiration.

    (3)

    Recoverability index (ECO)

    The recoverability of the landscape ecological process refers to the ability of an ecosystem to return to its original operating state after being subjected to external impacts. Land-use types play an essential role in landscape ecological recoverability48. The ecological recoverability index (ECO) uses the resilience coefficients of land-use types to reflect the level of ecosystem resilience38. Based on previous studies, the resilience coefficient of land-use types was assigned (Table 1).

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    Sensitivity index(A)

    Table 1 Resilience coefficients of different land use types.Full size tableThe sensitivity index (A) could be used to indicate landscape ecological process formation, change, and vulnerability to disturbance31. We started from the physical effects of blue–green space on sand production, water confluence, and sediment transport, introduced the Soil Erosion Modulus to characterize the sensitivity of landscape ecological processes to disturbance. The index effectively combines landscape ecology, erosion mechanics, soil science, and sediment dynamics49. The formula is as follows:$$ begin{gathered} A = R_{{i}} cdot K cdot LS cdot C cdot P hfill \ L = (l/22.1)^{m} hfill \ S = left{ begin{gathered} 10.8sin theta + 0.03,theta < 5^{ circ } hfill \ 16.8sin theta - 0.50,5^{ circ } le theta < 10^{ circ } hfill \ 21.9sin theta - 0.96,theta ge 10^{ circ } hfill \ end{gathered} right. hfill \ C = left{ begin{gathered} 1,c = 0 hfill \ 0.6508 - 0.3436lg c,0 < c le 78.3% hfill \ 0,c > 78.3% hfill \ end{gathered} right. hfill \ end{gathered} $$
    (6)
    where A is the soil erosion modulus. Ri is the rainfall erosion factor, K is the soil erosion factor, L and S are slope the length factor and the slope factor respectively, C is the vegetation coverage and management factor, P is the soil and water conservation factor, l is the slope length value, m is the slope length index, and θ the is slope value.Landscape ecological functionThe landscape ecological function determines the ability of ecological service50,51,52, the ecological service of urban blue–green space depends on the human value orientation48. It includes four categories: supply, support, regulation, and culture. Based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Alderfer’s ERG theory, scholars have summarized the three major needs of human beings for urban blue–green space. Namely, securing the living environment to meet the survival needs, improving social relationships to meet the interaction needs, and cultivating cultural cultivation to meet the development needs53. Specifically corresponding to the landscape ecological function of urban blue–green space, supply is not the main function, only plays a subsidiary role, support is the basic guarantee, regulation is the basic need for urban environmental construction, and culture is an important element of high-quality social life. Ecosystem service value (ESV) can realize the measurement of ecological service function by calculating the specific value of life support products and services produced by the ecosystem54,55,56. Considering the human value orientation of the urban blue–green space landscape ecological function, the weights were given by consulting 16 experts, with supply, regulation, support, and culture weights of 0.2, 0.3, 0.3, 0.2, respectively. The formula is as follows:$$ ESV = sumlimits_{k = 1}^{n} {S_{k} times V_{k}^{{}} } $$
    (7)
    where Sk is the area of landscape type k, Vk is the value coefficient of the ecosystem service function of landscape type k .Landscape ecological sustainabilityWu (2013) proposed a research framework for landscape sustainability based on a summary of related studies, stating that landscape ecological sustainability is the ability to provide ecosystem services in a long-term and stable manner34. The framework emphasized that landscape sustainability should focus on the analysis of ecosystem service trade-offs effect34,57. In the process of dynamic change of urban blue–green space ecosystem, there are complex trade-offs among various ecosystem services. This is important for promoting the optimal overall benefits of various ecosystem services and achieving sustainable development of urban ecology58. In addition, as a special type of human-centered ecosystem developed by humans based on nature, human well-being is also very important for the landscape ecological sustainability of urban blue–green space. For this reason, we introduced ecosystem service trade-offs (EST) and ecological construction input (IEC) as assessment indexes of landscape ecological sustainability.

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    Ecosystem service trade-offs (EST)

    This study applied the root mean square deviation of ecological services to quantify ecosystem service trade-offs (EST). The index could effectively measure the average difference in standard deviation between individual ecosystem services and the average ecosystem services. It is a simple and effective way to evaluate the trade-offs among ecosystem services. The formula is as follows:$$ EST = sqrt {frac{1}{n – 1}sumnolimits_{i = 1}^{n} {(ES_{std} – overline{ES}_{std} } } )^{2} $$
    (8)
    where ESstd is the normalized ecosystem services, n is the number of ecosystem services , and (overline{ES}_{std}) is the mean value of normalized ecosystem services.

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    Ecological construction input (ECI)

    Human well-being is a premise for the landscape ecological sustainability of urban blue–green spaces, it is closely related to government investment in ecological construction planning34. From the perspective of economics, this study assessed the human well-being obtained by urban blue–green space with the ratio of urban ecological construction investment to GDP, that is, the ecological construction input (ECI). The formula is as follows:$$ ECI = EI/G $$
    (9)
    where EI is the amount of ecological construction investment, and G is the gross regional product.Evaluation methodThe index weight determines its relative importance in the index system, and the selection of the weight calculation method in the decision-making of multi-attribute problems has an important impact on the assessment results21. Traditional weighting methods can be divided into two categories, subjective weighting method and objective weighting method21,38. The subjective weighting method is represented by the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), Delphi method, and so on. It has the advantage of simplicity, but the disadvantage is too subjective and randomness because it was completely dependent on the knowledge and experience of decision makers. The objective weighting method is represented by the entropy weighting method (EWM), principal component analysis, variation coefficient method, and so on. And it has been widely recognized for reflecting the variability of assessment results18, but the values of indexes have significant influence and the calculation results are not stable. Considering the limitations of the single weighting method, the weights of each assessment index in this study were determined by the combination of subjective weight and objective weight. Among them, the subjective weighting selected the AHP, and the objective weighting selected the EWM (Table 2). The formula is as follows:$$ w_{{j}} = alpha w_{{j}}^{{{AHP}}} + (1 – alpha )w_{{j}}^{{{EWM}}} $$
    (10)
    $$ w_{{j}}^{{{EWM}}} = d_{{j}} /sumlimits_{i = 1}^{m} {d_{{j}} } $$
    (11)
    $$ d_{{j}} = 1 – e_{{j}} $$
    (12)
    $$ e_{{j}} = – ksumlimits_{i = 1}^{n} {f_{{{ij}}} ln (f_{{{ij}}} )} ,;k = 1/ln (n) $$
    (13)
    $$ f_{{{ij}}} = X^{prime}_{{{ij}}} /sumlimits_{i = 1}^{n} {X^{prime}_{{{ij}}} } $$
    (14)
    where (W_{{j}}^{{}}) is the combined weight. (W_{{j}}^{{_{AHP} }}) is the weight of the j-th index of the AHP, (W_{{j}}^{{{EWM}}}) is the weight of the j-th index of the EWM, dj is the information entropy of the j-th index, ej is the entropy value of the j-th index, (f_{{{ij}}}) is the proportion of the index value of the j-th sample under the i-th indexm, (X^{prime}_{{{ij}}}) is the standardized value of the i-th sample of the j-th index, m is the number of index, n is the number of samples, and (alpha) was taken as 0.5.Table 2 Weight of assessment index.Full size tableSince the dimensions of indexes are different, it is necessary to unify the dimensions of the index to avoid the errors caused by direct calculation to make the evaluation results inaccurate. The range standardization was used to normalize the index data and bound its value in the interval [0, 1], the range standardization can be expressed as follows15,23:$$ {text{Positive indicator}}left( + right):A_{{{ij}}} = (X_{{{ij}}} – X_{{{jmin}}} )/(X_{{{jmax}}} – X_{{{jmin}}} ) $$
    (15)
    $$ {text{Negative indicator}}left( – right):A_{{{ij}}} = (X_{{{jmax}}} – X_{ij} )/(X_{{{jmax}}} – X_{{{jmin}}} ) $$
    (16)
    Additionally, we divided the LEH index into five levels from high to low using an equal-interval approach as follows40: [1–0.8) healthy, [0.8–0.6) sub-healthy, [0.6–0.4) moderately healthy, [0.4–0.2) unhealthy, [0.2–0] pathological, corresponding level I–V. And the level transfer of LEH in different periods was divided into three types: improvement type, degradation type, and stabilization type. For example, III-II means that the transfer from level III to level II is the improvement type.Spatial autocorrelation analysisSpatial autocorrelation analysis is one of the basic methods in theoretical geography. It could deeply investigate the spatial correlation characteristics of data, including global spatial autocorrelation and local spatial autocorrelation23. The global spatial autocorrelation uses global Moran’s I to evaluate the degree of their spatial agglomeration or differentiation of an attribute value in the study area. The local spatial autocorrelation is a decomposed form of the global spatial autocorrelation18,21, including four types: HH(High-High), LL(Low-Low), HL(High-Low), LH(Low–High). In this study, spatial autocorrelation analysis was applied to study the spatial correlation characteristics of blue–green space LEH. The calculation formulas are as follows:$$ I = frac{{Nsumlimits_{i} {sumlimits_{v} {W_{iv} (Y_{i} – overline{Y} )(Y_{v} – overline{Y} )} } }}{{(sumlimits_{i} {sumlimits_{v} {W_{iv} } } )sumlimits_{i} {(Y_{i} – overline{Y} )} }} $$
    (17)
    $$ I_{i} = frac{{Y_{i} – overline{Y} }}{{S_{x}^{2} }}sumlimits_{v} {left[ {W_{iv} (Y_{i} – overline{Y} )} right]} $$
    (18)
    where N is the number of space units, (W_{iv}) is the spatial weight, (Y_{i} ,Y_{v}) are the variable attribute values of the area (i,v), (overline{Y}) is the variable mean, (S_{x}^{2}) is the variance, (I) is the global Moran’s I index, and (I_{i}) is the local Moran’s I index. More

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    Bacterial matrix metalloproteases and serine proteases contribute to the extra-host inactivation of enteroviruses in lake water

    Virus propagation and enumerationEchovirus-11 (E11, Gregory strain, ATCC VR737) and Coxsackievirus-A9 (CVA9, environmental strain from sewage, kindly provided by the Finnish National Institute for Health and Welfare) stocks were produced by infecting sub-confluent monolayers of BGMK cells as described previously [7]. Viruses were released from infected cells by freezing and thawing the culture flasks three times. To eliminate cell debris, the suspensions were centrifuged at 3000 × g for 5 min. Each stock solution was stored at −20 °C until use. Infectious virus concentrations were enumerated by a most probable number (MPN) infectivity assay as described in the Supplementary Information. The assay limit of detection (LoD), defined as the concentration corresponding to one positive cytopathic effect in the lowest dilution of the MPN assay under the experimental conditions used, corresponding to 2 MPN/mL.Inactivation of enteroviruses by bacterial consortia from lake waterTo study the inactivation of CVA9 and E11 by a bacterial consortium from lake water, four surface water samples were collected from Lake Geneva (Ecublens, Switzerland) during the summer 2021. Each sampling event was conducted on warm and sunny days, to minimize biological variation. Immediately after sampling, large particles of the sample were removed by filtering 500 mL of water on a 8 μm nitrocellulose filter membrane (Merck Millipore, Cork, Ireland). The sample was then filtered through a 0.8 μm nitrocellulose filter membrane (Merck Millipore) to remove large microorganisms such as protists. The resulting water sample corresponds to the bacterial fraction used to study virus inactivation.For inactivation experiments, each virus was spiked into individual 1 mL aliquots of fractionated lake water to a final concentration of 106 MPN/mL, and samples were incubated for 48 h at 30 °C without shaking. Duplicate experiments were conducted for each virus and each lake water sample. Experiments to control for thermal inactivation were conducted using the same procedure but by replacing the fractionated lake water with sterile milliQ water. Viral infectivity at times 0 h and 48 h was determined by MPN as described above. Virus decay was calculated as log10 (C/C0), where C is the residual titer after 48 h of incubation, and C0 is the initial titer. The experimental LoD was approximately 5-log10.These same experiments were conducted for three new water samples in the presence of four protease inhibitors with the following final concentrations: E64—10 μM (E3132, Sigma–Aldrich, Saint-Louis, MO, USA), GM6001—4 μM (CC1010, Sigma–Aldrich), Chymostatin—100 μM (C7268, Sigma–Aldrich), and PMSF—100 μM (P7626, Sigma–Aldrich). Each inhibitor was added to 1 mL of fractionated lake water, vortexed for 30 seconds, and incubated at room temperature for 15 min, before adding the two viral strains under the same conditions as described above.Bacterial isolation, cultivation, and storageBacteria were isolated from two water samples from Lake Geneva’s Ecublens beach, taken in November 2019 (Fall, 89 isolates) and May 2020 (Spring, 47 isolates). Bacteria recovery was performed on R2A agar plate (BD Difco, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) as described previously [15]. Briefly, successive dilutions from 10−1 to 10−5 were carried out in sterile water for each sample. For each dilution, a volume of 1 mL was deposited on three separate R2A plates, before being incubated at 22, 30, and 37 °C. After 5 days of incubation, each colony was picked and enriched on a new R2A plate. To ensure purity, each isolate was successively plated five times on R2A plate and incubated at the same temperature as the initial isolation. Each purified isolate was cryopreserved in R2A / 20% glycerol at −80 °C. The isolates were named based on the water body (Lake (L)), isolation temperature, and the isolation order (L-T°C-number).Bacterial identificationThe identification of each isolate was performed by 16 S rRNA gene sequencing using the pair of primers 27 F (5’- AGA GTT TGA TCM TGG CTC AG- 3’, Microsynth AG, Balgach, Switzerland) / 786 R (5’- CTA CCA GGG TAT CTA ATC – 3’, Microsynth AG), following a methodology previously described [15]. The thermocycling conditions and the purification of PCR products are described in the Supplementary Information. The complete list of isolated bacteria and associated accession numbers is given in Supplementary Table 1.Phylogenetic inference and metadata visualizationThe consensus from 16 S rRNA gene sequences of the 136 isolates was aligned using the MUSCLE algorithm [16]. The phylogenetic analysis of 566 bp aligned sequences from the V2-V4 16 S rRNA gene regions (Positions: 152–717) was performed using Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis X software [17]. Phylogeny was inferred by maximum likelihood, with 1000 bootstrap iterations to test the robustness of the nodes. The resulting tree was uploaded and formatted using iTOL [18].Virus incubation with bacterial isolatesFor the preparation of the bacteria before co-incubation, each one was first cultured on R2A agar for 48 h at their initial isolation temperature. Overnight suspensions of each bacterial isolate were grown in R2A broth at room temperature under constant agitation (180 rpm). For co-incubation experiments, 200 μL of each bacterial suspension were mixed with 100 μL of a 105 MPN/mL stock of E11 or CVA9. Then, each condition was supplemented with 600 μL of R2A broth. Incubation was carried out for 96 h at room temperature, without shaking. At the end of the co-incubation, each tube was centrifuged for 15 min at 9000 × g (4 °C) to eliminate bacteria, and the residual infectious viral titer was enumerated by MPN assay as described above [7]. Each co-incubation experiment was carried out in triplicate. Control experiments were performed under the same conditions but using sterile R2A. Virus decay was quantified as log10 (Cexp/Cctrl), where Cexp is the residual titer after a co-incubation for 96 h, and Cctrl is the titer after incubation of the virus in sterile R2A for 96 h. The experimental LoD was 3-log10.Protease activity measurement using casein and gelatin agar platesCasein agar was prepared as follows: 20 g of skim milk (BD Difco), supplemented with 1 g glucose were reconstituted with 200 mL of distilled water. Likewise, a 10% bacteriological agar solution was prepared in a final volume of 200 mL. Finally, a solution consisting of 0.8% NaCl, 0.02% KCl, 0.144% Na2HPO4, and 0.024% KH2PO4 was reconstituted in 600 mL of water. All solutions were autoclaved for 15 min at 110 °C. The solutions were mixed, and 25 mL were poured into each Petri dish. Gelatin agar was composed of 0.4% peptone, 0.1% yeast extract, 1.5% gelatin and 1.5% bacteriological agar. The mixture was autoclaved 15 min at 120 °C, and 25 mL of medium was poured into each Petri dish.For each isolate, an overnight suspension was performed in R2A broth at room temperature, before spotting 15 μL of each suspension at the center of both gelatin and casein agar plates. Each plate was incubated at 22, 30, or 37 °C for 72 h, depending on the initial isolation temperature of the bacteria. Casein-degrading activity (cas), which is exerted by many different protease classes, and gelatin-degrading activity (gel), which is mostly caused by MMPs, were revealed by a hydrolysis halo around the producing bacteria. Hydrolysis diameters were measured in millimeters (mm) to report the extent of the proteolytic effect of each strain on both substrates.Protease activity quantification in cell-free supernatantUsing the same bacterial suspensions as for bacterial/virus co-incubation, 200 μL of each suspension was inoculated into 600 μL of R2A broth and incubated without shaking for 96 h at room temperature. Each culture was centrifuged for 15 min at 9000 × g at 4 °C. The resulting cell-free supernatants (CFS) were stored at −20 °C until use. For each CFS, protease activity was measured using the Protease Activity Assay Kit (ab112152, Abcam, Cambridge, UK), which measures general protease activity (pgen) except MMPs, and the MMP Activity Assay Kit (ab112146, Abcam), which selectively measures MMP activity (mmp). Briefly, for the Protease Activity Assay kit, 50 μL of the substrate was added into each well of a dark-bottom plate containing 50 μL of each CFS. Standard trypsin provided by the kit was used as a positive control. For the MMP Activity Assay kit, 50 μL of each CFS was incubated with 50 μL of 2 mM APMA for 3 h at 37 °C, prior to the activity test. Collagenase I (C0130, Sigma–Aldrich) was used as a positive control. R2A broth was used as a negative control for each assay. Protease activity was measured at time 0 and after 60 min, using a Synergy MX fluorescence reader (BioTek). The excitation and emission wavelengths were set to 485 and 530 nm, respectively. The emitted fluorescence, generated by proteolytic cleavage of the substrate of each kit, was calculated as follows: ∆RFU = RFU (60 min) − RFU (0 min). Proteolytic activity was calculated in mmol/min/μL based on the emitted fluorescence measured for trypsin and collagenase I at known proteolytic activities.Data analysisStatistical analyses to compare inactivation data were performed by one-way t-test or one-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s post-hoc test in GraphPad Prism v.9. An alpha value of 0.05 was used as a threshold for statistical significance. For each dataset we confirmed that data were normally distributed.To analyze a potential correlation between protease activity and viral decay, the decay values for each virus strain was related to the four protease activity tests of this study using a scatterplot combined with a Kernel density estimation. The analyses were performed with R v.3.6.1 using the SmoothScatter function of the R Base package.A Left-Censored Tobit model (CTM) with mixed effects was chosen to investigate interactions between protease activity and the decay measured for each virus strain. Briefly, the CTM with mixed effect was chosen for three reasons: (1) The protocol used to measure viral decay had a limit of quantification of −3-log10, and 152 measurement points reached the detection limit, requiring the use of this value as the left-censored value of the model; (2) The two virus strains used in the study showed distinct responses after exposure to environmental bacteria, preventing the use of a multiple linear regression model; (3) Among biological replicates of co-incubation experiments, inactivation variability was observed, suggesting the concomitant action of random biological effects (e.g., production of other compounds than proteases by bacteria, or differences in protease production rate between replicates for each bacterial isolate). The resulting statistical model was then formulated as follows:$$log left( {frac{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{exp}}}}}}}}}{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{ctrl}}}}}}}}}} right) = ; beta _0 + beta _1;{rm I}_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2} + beta _2sqrt {left[ {pgen} right]_i} + beta _3sqrt {left[ {mmp} right]_i} + beta _4sqrt {left[ {cas} right]_i} \ + beta _5sqrt {left[ {gel} right]_i} + beta _6I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2}sqrt {left[ {pgen} right]_i} + beta _7I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2}sqrt {left[ {mmp} right]_i} \ + beta _8I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2}sqrt {left[ {cas} right]_i} + beta _9I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2}sqrt {left[ {gel} right]_i} + alpha _{{{{{{{{mathrm{id}}}}}}}}_i} + varepsilon _i$$$${{{mbox{where}}}}; log left( {frac{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{exp}}}}}}}}}{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{ctrl}}}}}}}}}} right) = left{ {begin{array}{*{20}{c}} { – 3} & {{{{{{{{mathrm{if}}}}}}}};{{{{{{{mathrm{log}}}}}}}}left( {frac{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{exp}}}}}}}}}{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{ctrl}}}}}}}}}} right) le – 3} \ {{{{{{{{mathrm{log}}}}}}}}left( {frac{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{exp}}}}}}}}}{{C_{{{{{{mathrm{ctrl}}}}}}}}}} right)} & {{{{{{{{mathrm{otherwise}}}}}}}}} end{array}} right.$$$$alpha _{{{{{{{{mathrm{id}}}}}}}}_i}sim {{{{{{{mathrm{i}}}}}}}}.{{{{{{{mathrm{i}}}}}}}}.;{{{{{{{mathrm{d}}}}}}}}.;{rm N}left( {0,;sigma _{{{{{{{{mathrm{id}}}}}}}}}^2} right)$$$${{{{{{{mathrm{for}}}}}}}};i in left{ {1,2, ldots } right}$$for which β0 defines the model intercept, (beta _1{rm I}_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2}) corresponds to the main effect of the virus factor on the viral decay, (beta _2,;beta _3,;beta _4,;{{{{{{{mathrm{and}}}}}}}};beta _5) corresponds to the main effects of the different protease activity measurements on viral decay, (beta _6I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2},;beta _7I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2},;beta _8I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2},{{{{{{{mathrm{and}}}}}}}};beta _9I_{{{{{{{{mathrm{virus}}}}}}}}_i = 2}) corresponds to the interaction effects between each of these variables and the viral decay, (alpha _{{{{{{{{mathrm{id}}}}}}}}_i}) corresponds to the mixed effect of the model and (varepsilon _i) corresponds to the error term of the model. The selection of the model is further detailed in the Supplementary Information (Supplementary Material and Figs. S1 and S2).The full dataset included in the correlation analysis and the CTM is provided in Supplementary Table 2. A description of the variables used is given in the Supplementary Information. The dataset was analyzed using the censReg package in R [19]. The R code is given in the Supplementary Information. More

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    Unravelling seasonal trends in coastal marine heatwave metrics across global biogeographical realms

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    Modern aridity in the Altai-Sayan mountain range derived from multiple millennial proxies

    1500-year stable carbon and oxygen isotopes in larch tree-ring celluloseThe δ13Ccell (Fig. 1a, Fig. S2) and δ18Ocell (Fig. 1b, Fig. S3) records span 516–2016 CE, at annual resolution. The δ13Ccell timeseries shows mostly increasing trends during the first millennium of the Common Era (516–1120 CE), and similarly at the end of the last millennium (1720–2016 CE). The maximum δ13Ccell value occurs in 2016 CE (−19.6‰; + 3.2σ), while the minimum occurs in 686 CE (−24.7‰, −3.6σ) relative to the average for the period 516–2016 CE (−22.04‰) (Table S2, Fig. S2). The standard error (SE) for the whole analysed period is 0.02.Figure 1Annually resolved δ13Ccell (a) and δ18O cell (b) in Siberian larch tree-ring cellulose chronologies for the period from 516 to 2016 CE. Chronologies are smoothed by a 101-year Hamming window to highlight a centennial scale. The dotted and dashed lines indicate the number of trees analysed.Full size imageThe δ18Ocell timeseries (Fig. 1b, Fig. S3) showed two positive and one negative extreme over the past 1500 years, with the minimum value (19.9‰; −6.3σ), occurring in 536 CE, and maximum values (31.9‰; + 3.8σ and 32.2‰; + 4.4σ), occurring in 1266 and 2008 CE, respectively (Table S2, Fig. S3). The SE for the whole analysed period is 0.03. The δ18Ocell data has higher standard deviation (SD) (1.15) than δ13Ccell (0.75).Less than 1% of values in the δ18Ocell record are classified as extreme, with the standard deviation ≥  ± 3σ. The δ13Ccell and δ18Ocell records are significantly correlated (r = 0.1, p = 0.0001, n = 1500).Local climate signals preserved in δ13Ccell and δ18Ocell recordsWe used weather observations from the local Mugur-Aksy weather station (50°N, 90°E, 1850 m asl) (Table S1) to derive quantitative paleoclimatic reconstructions from our δ13Ccell and δ18Ocell timeseries. A multiple linear regression analysis revealed significant correlations between δ13Ccell and July precipitation (r = −0.58; p  More

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    Enhanced spring warming in a Mediterranean mountain by atmospheric circulation

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    In this episode:00:57 Reviving retinas to understand eyesResearch efforts to learn more about diseases of the human eye have been hampered as these organs degrade rapidly after death, and animal eyes are quite different to those from humans. To address this, a team have developed a new method to revive retinas taken from donors shortly after their death. They hope this will provide tissue for new studies looking into the workings of the human eye and nervous system.Research article: Abbas et al.08:05 Research HighlightsA technique that simplifies chocolate making yields fragrant flavours, and 3D imaging reveals some of the largest-known Native American cave art.Research Highlight: How to make a fruitier, more floral chocolateResearch Highlight: Cramped chamber hides some of North America’s biggest cave art10:54 Did life emerge in an ‘RNA world’?How did the earliest biochemical process evolve from Earth’s primordial soup? One popular theory is that life began in an ‘RNA world’ from which proteins and DNA evolved. However, this week a new paper suggests that a world composed of RNA alone is unlikely, and that life is more likely to have begun with molecules that were part RNA and part protein.Research article: Müller et al.News and Views: A possible path towards encoded protein synthesis on ancient Earth17:52 Briefing ChatWe discuss some highlights from the Nature Briefing. This time, the ‘polarised sunglasses’ that helped astronomers identify an ultra-bright pulsar, and how a chemical in sunscreen becomes toxic to coral.Nature: A ‘galaxy’ is unmasked as a pulsar — the brightest outside the Milky WayNature: A common sunscreen ingredient turns toxic in the sea — anemones suggest whySubscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday.Never miss an episode: Subscribe to the Nature Podcast on Apple Podcasts, Google Podcasts, Spotify or your favourite podcast app. Head here for the Nature Podcast RSS feed. More

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    Global forest management data for 2015 at a 100 m resolution

    Reference data collectionIn February 2019, we involved forest experts from different regions around the world and organized a workshop to (1) discuss the variety of forest management practices that take place in various parts of the world; (2) explore what types of forest management information could be collected by visual interpretation of very high-resolution images from Google Maps and Microsoft Bing Maps, in combination with Sentinel time series and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) profiles derived from Google Earth Engine (GEE); (3) generalize and harmonize the definitions at global scale; (4) finalize the Geo-Wiki interface for the crowdsourcing campaigns; and (5) build a data set of control points (or the expert data set), which we used later to monitor the quality of the crowdsourced contributions by the participants. Based on the results of this analysis, we launched the crowdsourcing campaigns by involving a broader group of participants, which included people recruited from remote sensing, geography and forest research institutes and universities. After the crowdsourcing campaigns, we collected additional data with the help of experts. Hence, the final reference data consists of two parts: (1) a randomly stratified sample collected by crowdsourcing (49,982 locations); (2) a targeted sample collected by experts (176,340 locations, at those locations where the information collected from the crowdsourcing campaign was not large enough to ensure a robust classification).DefinitionsTable 1 contains the initial classification used for visual interpretation of the reference samples and the aggregated classes presented in the final reference data set. For the Geo-Wiki campaigns, we attempted to collect information (1) related to forest management practices and (2) recognizable from very high-resolution satellite imagery or time series of vegetation indices. The final reference data set and the final map contain an aggregation of classes, i.e., only those that were reliably distinguishable from visual interpretation of satellite imagery.Table 1 Forest management classes and definitions.Full size tableSampling design for the crowdsourcing campaignsInitially, we generated a random stratified sample of 110,000 sites globally. The total number of sample sites was chosen based on experiences from past Geo-Wiki campaigns12, a practical estimation of the potential number of volunteer participants that we could engage in the campaign, and the expected spatial variation in forest management. We used two spatial data sets for the stratification of the sample: World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Terrestrial Ecoregions13 and Global Forest Change14. The samples were stratified into three biomes, based on WWF Terrestrial Ecoregions (Fig. 2): boreal (25 000 sample sites), temperate (35,000 sample sites) and tropical (50,000 sample sites). Within each biome, we used Hansen’s14 Global Forest Change maps to derive areas with “forest remaining forest” 2000–2015, “forest loss or gain”, and “permanent non-forest” areas.Fig. 2Biomes for sampling stratification (1 – boreal, 2 – temperate, 3 – sub-tropical and tropical).Full size imageThe sample size was determined from previous experiences, taking into account the expected spatial variation in forest management within each biome. Tropical forests had the largest sample size because of increasing commodity-driven deforestation15, the wide spatial extent of plantations, and slash and burn agriculture. Temperate forests had a larger sample compared to boreal forests due to their higher fragmentation. Each sample site was classified by at least three different participants, thus accounting for human error and varying expertise16,17,18. At a later stage, following a preliminary analysis of the data collected, we increased the number of sample sites to meet certain accuracy thresholds for every mapped class (aiming to exceed 75% accuracy).The Geo‐Wiki applicationGeo‐Wiki.org is an online application for crowdsourcing and expert visual interpretation of satellite imagery, e.g., to classify land cover and land use. This application has been used in several data collection campaigns over the last decade16,19,20,21,22,23. Here, we implemented a new custom branch of Geo‐Wiki (‘Human impact on Forest’), which is devoted to the collection of forest management data (Fig. 3). Various map overlays (including satellite images from Google Maps, Microsoft Bing Maps and Sentinel 2), campaign statistics and tools to aid interpretation, such as time series profiles of NDVI, were provided as part of this Geo‐Wiki branch, giving users a range of options and choices to facilitate image classification and general data collection. Google Maps and Microsoft Bing Maps include mosaics of very high-resolution satellite and aerial imagery from different time periods and multiple image providers, including the Landsat satellites operated by NASA and USGS as base imagery to commercial image providers such as Digital Globe. More information on the spatial and temporal distribution of very high-resolution satellite imagery can be found in Lesiv et al.24. This collection of images was supplied as guidance for visual interpretation16,20. Participants could analyze time series profiles of NDVI from Landsat, Sentinel 2 and MODIS images, which were derived from Google Earth Engine (GEE). More information on tools can be found in Supplementary file 1.Fig. 3Screenshot of the Geo‐Wiki interface showing a very high-resolution image from Google Maps and a sample site as a 100 mx100 m blue square, which the participants classified based on the forest management classes on the right.Full size imageThe blue box in Fig. 3 corresponds to 100 m × 100 m pixels aligned with the Sentinel grid in UTM projection. It is the same geometry required for the classification workflow that is used to produce the Copernicus Land Cover product for 201511.Before starting the campaign, the participants were shown a series of slides designed to help them gain familiarity with the interface and to train them in how to visually determine and select the most appropriate type of land use and forest management classes at each given location, thereby increasing both consistency and accuracy of the labelling tasks among experts. Once completed, the participants were shown random locations (from the random stratified sample) on the Geo‐Wiki interface and were then asked to select one of the forest management classes outlined in the Definition section (see Table 1 above).Alternatively, if there was either insufficient quality in the available imagery, or if a participant was unable to determine the forest management type, they could skip such a site (Fig. 3). If a participant skipped a sample site because it was too difficult, other participants would then receive this sample site for classification, whereas in the case of the absence of high-resolution satellite imagery, i.e., Google Maps and Microsoft Bing Maps, this sample site was then removed from the pool of available sample sites. The skipped locations were less than 1% of the total amount of locations assigned for labeling. Table 2 shows the distribution of the skipped locations by countries, based on the subset of the crowdsourced data where all the participants agreed.Table 2 Distribution of the skipped locations by countries.Full size tableQuality assurance and data aggregation of the crowdsourced dataBased on the experience gained from previous crowdsourcing campaigns12,19, we invested in the training of the participants (130 persons in total) and overall quality assurance. Specifically, we provided initial guidelines for the participants in the form of a video and a presentation that were shown before the participants could start classifying in the forest management branch (Supplementary file 1). Additionally, the participants were asked to classify 20 training samples before contributing to the campaign. For each of these training samples, they received text‐based feedback regarding how each location should be classified. Summary information about the participants who filled in the survey at the end of the campaign (i.e., gender, age, level of education, and their country of residence) is provided in the Supplementary file 2. We would like to note that 130 participants is a high number, especially taking the complexity of the task into consideration.Furthermore, during the campaign, sample sites that were part of the “control” data set were randomly shown to the participants. The participants received text-based feedback regarding whether the classification had been made correctly or not, with additional information and guidance. By providing immediate feedback, our intention was that participants would learn from their mistakes, increasing the quality and classification accuracy over time. If the text‐based feedback was not sufficient to provide an understanding of the correct classification, the participants were able to submit a request (“Ask the expert”) for a more detailed explanation by email.The control set was independent of the main sample, and it was created using the same random stratified sampling procedure within each biome and the stratification by Global Forest Change maps14 (see “Sample design” section). To determine the size of the control sample, we considered two aspects: (a) the maximum number of sample sites that one person could classify during the entire campaign; (b) the frequency at which control sites would appear among the task sites (defined at 15%, which is a compromise between the classification of as many unknown locations as possible and a sufficient level of quality control, based on previous experience). Our control sample consisted of 5,000 sites. Each control sample site was classified twice by two different experts. When the two experts agreed, these sample sites were added to the final control sample. Where disagreement occurred (in 25% of cases), these sample sites were checked again by the experts and revised accordingly. During the campaign, participants had the option to disagree with the classification of the control site and submit a request with their opinion and arguments. They received an additional quality score in the situation when they were correct, but the experts were not. This procedure also ensured an increase in the quality of the control data set.To incentivize participation and high-quality classifications, we offered prizes as part of the campaign design. The ranking system for the prize competition considered both the quality of the classifications and the number of classifications provided by a participant. The quality measure was based on the control sample discussed above. The participants randomly received a control point, which was classified in advance by the experts. For every control point, a participant could receive a maximum of +30 points (fully correct classification) to a minimum of −30 points (incorrect classification). In the case where the answer was partly correct (e.g., the participant correctly classified that the forest is managed, but misclassified the regeneration type), they received points ranging from 5 to 25.The relative quality score for each participant was then calculated as the total sum of gained points divided by the maximum sum of points that this participant could have earned. For any subsequent data analysis, we excluded classifications from those participants whose relative quality score was less than 70%. This threshold corresponds to an average score of 10 points at each location (out of a maximum of 30 points), i.e., where participants were good at defining the aggregated forest management type but may have been less good at providing the more detailed classification.Unfortunately, we observed some imbalance in the proportion of participants coming from different countries, e.g. there were not so many participants from the tropics. This could have resulted in interpretation errors, even when all the participants agreed on a classification. To address this, we did an additional quality check. We selected only those sample sites where all the participants agreed and then randomly checked 100 sample sites from each class. Table 3 summarizes the results of this check and explains the selection of the final classes presented in Table 1.Table 3 Qualitative analysis of the reference sample sites with full agreement.Full size tableAs a result of the actions outlined in Table 3, we compiled the final reference data set, which consisted of 49,982 consistent sample sites.Additional expert data collectionWe used the reference data set to produce a test map of forest management (the classification algorithm used is described in the next section). By checking visually and comparing against the control data set, we found that the map was of insufficient quality for many locations, especially in the case of heterogeneous landscapes. While several reasons for such an unsatisfactory result are possible, the experts agreed that a larger sample size would likely increase the accuracy of the final map, especially in areas of high heterogeneity and for forest management classes that only cover a small spatial extent. To increase the amount of high-quality training data and hence to improve the map, we collected additional data using a targeted approach. In practice, the map was uploaded to Geo-Wiki, and using the embedded drawing tools, the experts randomly checked locations on the map, focusing on their region of expertise and added classified polygons in locations where the forest management was misclassified. To limit model overfitting and oversampling of certain classes, the experts also added points for correctly mapped classes to keep the density of the points the same. This process involved a few iterations of collecting additional points and training the classification algorithm until the map accuracy reached 75%. In total, we collected an additional 176,340 training points. With the 49,982 consistent training points from the Geo-Wiki campaigns, this resulted in 226,322 (Fig. 4). This two-pronged approach would not have been possible without the exhaustive knowledge obtained from running the initial Geo-Wiki campaigns, including numerous questions raised by the campaign participants. Figure 4 also highlights in yellow the areas of very high sampling density, I.e., those collected by the experts. The sampling intensity of these areas is much higher in comparison with the randomly distributed crowdsourced locations, and these are mainly areas with very mixed forest classes or small patches, in most cases, including plantations.Fig. 4Distribution of reference locations.Full size imageClassification algorithmTo produce the forest management map for the year 2015, we applied a workflow that was developed as part of the production of the Copernicus Global Land Services land cover at 100 m resolution (CGLS-LC100) collection 2 product11. A brief description of the workflow (Fig. 5), focusing on the implemented changes, is given below. A more thorough explanation, including detailed technical descriptions of the algorithms, the ancillary data used, and the intermediate products generated, can be found in the Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) of the CGLS-LC100 collection 2 product25.Fig. 5Workflow overview for the generation of the Copernicus Global Land Cover Layers. Adapted from the Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document25.Full size imageThe CGLS-LC100 collection 2 processing workflow can be applied to any satellite data, as it is unspecific to different sensors or resolutions. While the CGLS-LC100 Collection 2 product is based on PROBA-V sensor data, the workflow has already been tested with Sentinel 2 and Landsat data, thereby using it for regional/continental land cover (LC) mapping applications11,26. For generating the forest management layer, the main Earth Observation (EO) input was the PROBA-V UTM Analysis Ready Data (ARD) archive based on the complete PROBA-V L1C archive from 2014 to 2016. The ARD pre-processing included geometric transformation into a UTM coordinate system, which reduced distortions in high northern latitudes, as well as improved atmospheric correction, which converted the Top-of-Atmosphere reflectance to surface reflectance (Top-of-Canopy). In a further processing step, gaps in the 5-daily PROBA-V UTM multi-spectral image data with a Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) of ~0.001 degrees (~100 m) were filled using the PROBA-V UTM daily multi-spectral image data with a GSD of ~0.003 degrees (~300 m). This data fusion is based on a Kalman filtering approach, as in Sedano et al.27, but was further adapted to heterogonous surfaces25. Outputs from the EO pre-processing were temporally cleaned by using the internal quality flags of the PROBA-V UTM L3 data, a temporal cloud and outlier filter built on a Fourier transformation. This was done to produce consistent and dense 5-daily image stacks for all global land masses at 100 m resolution and a quality indicator, called the Data Density Indicator (DDI), used in the supervised learning process of the algorithm.Since the total time series stack for the epoch 2015 (a three-year period including the reference year 2015 +/− 1 year) would be composed of too many proxies for supervised learning, the time and spectral dimension of the data stack had to be condensed. The spectral domain was condensed by using Vegetation Indices (VIs) instead of the original reflectance values. Overall, ten VIs based on the four PROBA-V reflectance bands were generated, which included: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI); Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI); Structure Intensive Pigment Index (SIPI); Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI); Near-Infrared reflectance of vegetation (NIRv); Angle at NIR; HUE and VALUE of the Hue Saturation Value (HSV) color system transformation. The temporal domain of the time series VI stacks was then condensed by extracting metrics, which are used as general descriptors to enable distinguishing between the different LC classes. Overall, we extracted 266 temporal, descriptive, and textual metrics from the VI times series stacks. The temporal descriptors were derived through a harmonic model, fitted through the time series of each of the VIs based on a Fourier transformation28,29. In addition to the seven parameters of the harmonic model that describe the overall level and seasonality of the VI time series, 11 descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, sum, median, 10th percentile, 90th percentile, 10th – 90th percentile range, time step of the first minimum appearance, and time step of the first maximum appearance) and one textural metric (median variation of the center pixel to median of the neighbours) were generated for each VI. Additionally, the elevation, slope, aspect, and purity derived at 100 m from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) were added. Overall, 270 metrics were extracted from the PROBA-V UTM 2015 epoch.The main difference to the original CGLS-LC100 collection 2 algorithms is the use of forest management training data instead of the global LC reference data set, as well as only using the discrete classification branch of the algorithm. The dedicated regressor branch of the CGLS-LC100 collection 2 algorithm, i.e., outputting cover fraction maps for all LC classes, was not needed for generating the forest management layer.In order to adapt the classification algorithm to sub-continental and continental patterns, the classification of the data was carried out per biome cluster, with the 73 biome clusters defined by the combination of several global ecological layers, which include the ecoregions 2017 dataset30, the Geiger-Koeppen dataset31, the global FAO eco-regions dataset32, a global tree-line layer33, the Sentinel-2 tiling grid and the PROBA-V imaging extent;30,31 this, effectively, resulted in the creation of 73 classification models, each with its non-overlapping geographic extent and its own training dataset. Next, in preparation for the classification procedure, the metrics of all training points were analyzed for outliers, as well as screened via an all-relevant feature selection approach for the best metric combinations (i.e., best band selection) for each biome cluster in order to reduce redundancy between parameters used in the classification. The best metrics are defined as those that have the highest separability compared to other metrics. For each metric, the separability is calculated by comparing the metric values of one class to the metric values of another class; more details can be found in the ATBD25. The optimized training data set, together with the quality indicator of the input data (DDI data set) as a weight factor, were used in the training of the Random Forest classifier. Moreover, a 5-fold cross-validation was used to optimize the classifier parameters for each generated model (one per biome).Finally, the Random Forest classification was used to produce a hard classification, showing the discrete class for each pixel, as well as the predicted class probability. In the last step, the discrete classification results (now called the forest management map) are modified by the CGLS-LC100 collection 2 tree cover fraction layer29. Therefore, the tree cover fraction layer, showing the relative distribution of trees within one pixel, was used to remove areas with less than 10% tree cover fraction in the forest management layer, following the FAO definition of forest. Figure 6 shows the class probability layer that illustrates the model behavior, highlighting the areas of class confusion. This layer shows that there is high confusion between forest management classes in heterogeneous landscapes, e.g., in Europe and the Tropics while homogenous landscapes, such as Boreal forests, are mapped with high confidence. It is important to note that a low probability does not mean that the classification is wrong.Fig. 6The predicted class probability by the Random Forest classification.Full size image More

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    Maximizing citizen scientists’ contribution to automated species recognition

    In the current study we utilize an extensive network and data from citizen science in order to test for among taxa variation in biases and value of information (VoI) in image recognition training data. We use data from the Norwegian Species Observation Service as an example dataset due to the generic nature of this citizen science platform, where all multicellular taxa from any Norwegian region can be reported both with and without images. The platform is open to anyone willing to report under their full real name, and does not record users’ expertise or profession. The platform had 6,205 active contributors in 2021 out of its 17,655 registered users, and currently publishes almost 27 million observations through GBIF, of which 1.08 million with one or more images. Observations have been bulk-verified by experts appointed by biological societies receiving funding for this task, with particular focus on red listed species, invasive alien species, and observations out of range or season. Observations containing pictures receive additional scrutiny, as other users can alert reporters and validators to possible mistaken identifications. An advantage of this particular platform is that no image recognition model has been integrated. This ensures that the models trained in this experiment are not trained on the output resulting from the use of any model, but with identifications and taxonomic biases springing from the knowledge and interest of human observers. Moreover, the platform’s compliance with the authoritative Norwegian taxonomy allows for analyses on taxonomic coverage.In an exploration procedure we determined the taxonomic level of orders to be suitable examples of taxa with a sufficiently wide taxonomic diversity, and enough data in the dataset to be evaluated for models in this experiment. Data collection was done by acquiring taxon statistics and observation data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), the largest aggregator of biodiversity observations in the world37 for the selected orders, as well as the classes used by Troudet et al.5. The authoritative taxonomy for Norway was downloaded from the Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre38. In the experimental procedure, models were trained for 12 distinct orders (listed in Fig. 4), artificially restricting these models to different amounts of data. In the data analysis stage, model performances relative to the amount of training data were fitted for each order, allowing the estimation of a VoI. Using the number of observations per species on GBIF, and the number of species known to be present in Norway from the Norwegian Species Nomenclature Database, we calculated relative taxonomic biases.ExplorationInitial pilot runs were done on 8 taxa (see Supplementary Information), using different subset sizes of observations for each species, and training using both an Inception-ResNet-v239 as well as an EfficientNetB340 architecture for each of these subsets. These initial results indicated that the Inception-ResNet-v2 performance (F(_1)) varied less between replicate runs and was generally higher, so subsequent experiments were done using this architecture. The number of observations which still improved the accuracy of the model was found to be between 150 and 200 in the most extreme cases, so the availability of at least 220 observations with images per species was chosen as an inclusion criteria for the further experiment. This enabled us to set aside at least 20 observations per species as a test dataset for independent model analysis.From a Darwin Core Archive file of Norwegian citizen science observations from the Species Observation Service with at least one image33, a tally of the number of such observations per species was generated. We then calculated how many species, with a minimum of 220 such observations, would, at a minimum, be available per taxon if a grouping was made based on each taxon rank level with the constraint of resulting in at least 12 distinct taxa. For each taxonomic level, we calculated how many species having at least 220 such observations were available per taxon when dividing species based on that taxon level. When deciding on the appropriate taxon level to use, we limited the options to taxon levels resulting in at least 12 different taxa.A division by order was found to provide the highest minimum number of species (17) per order within these constraints, covering 12 of the 96 eligible orders. The next best alternative was the family level, which would contain 15 species per family, covering 12 of the 267 eligible families.Data collectionWe retrieved the number of species represented in the Norwegian data through the GBIF API, for all observations, all citizen science observations, and all citizen science observations with images for the 12 selected orders and the classes used by Troudet et al.5. We also downloaded the Norwegian Species Nomenclature Database38 for all kingdoms containing taxa included in these datasets. Observations with images were collected from the Darwin Core Archive file used in the exploration phase, filtering on the selected orders. For these orders, all images were downloaded and stored locally. The average number of images per observation in this dataset was 1.44, with a maximum of 17 and a median of 1.Experimental procedureFor each selected order, a list of all species with at least 220 observations with images was generated from the Darwin Core Archive file33. Then, runs were generated according to the following protocol (Fig. 5):Figure 5Data selection and subdivision. Each run is generated by selecting 17 taxonomically adjacent species per order, and randomly assigning all available images of each selected species to that run’s test-, train- or validation set. Training data are used as input during training, using the validation data to evaluate performance after each training round in order to adjust training parameters during training. The test set is used to measure model performance independently after the model is finalized28. For each subsequent model in that run, training and validation data are reduced by 25% (or slightly less than 25% if not divisible by 4). The test set is not reduced, and used for all models within a run.Full size image

    1.

    From a list sorted alphabetically by the full taxonomy of the species, a subset of 17 consecutive species starting from a random index was selected. If the end of the list was reached with fewer than 17 species selected, selection continued from the start of the list. The taxonomic sorting ensures that closely related species (belonging to the same family or genus), bearing more similarity, are more likely to be part of the same experimental set. This ensures that the classification task is not simplified for taxa with many eligible species.

    2.

    Each of the 220+ observations for each species were tagged as being either test, training or validation data. A random subset of all but 200 were assigned to the test set. The remaining 200 observations were, in a 9:1 ratio, randomly designated as training or validation data, respectively. In all cases, images from the same observation were assigned to the same subset, to keep the information in each subset independent from the others. The resulting lists of images are stored as the test set and 200-observation task.

    3.

    The 200 observations in the training and validation sets were then repeatedly reduced by discarding a random subset of 25% of both, maintaining a validation data proportion of (le)10%. The resulting set was saved as the next task, and this step was repeated as long as the resulting task contained a minimum of 10 observations per species. The test set remained unaltered throughout.

    Following this protocol results in a single run of related training tasks with 200, 150, 113, 85, 64, 48, 36, 27, 21, 16 and 12 observations for training and validation per species. The seeds for the randomization for both the selection of the species and for the subsetting of training- and validation datasets were stored for reproducibility. The generation of runs was repeated 5 times per order to generate runs containing tasks with different species subsets and different observation subsetting.Then, a Convolutional Neural Network based on Inception-ResNet-v239 (see the Supplementary Information for model configuration) was trained using each predesignated training/validation split. When the learning rate had reached its minimum and accuracy no longer improved on the validation data, training was stopped and the best performing model was saved. Following this protocol, each of the 12 orders were trained in 5 separate runs containing 11 training tasks each, thus producing a total of 660 recognition models. After training, each model was tested on all available test images for the relevant run.Data analysisThe relative representation of species within different taxa were generated using the number of species present in the GBIF data for Norway within each taxon and the number of accepted species within that taxon present in the Norwegian Species Nomenclature Database38, in line with Troudet et al.5: (R_x = n_x – (n frac{s_x}{s})) where (R_x) is the relative representation for taxon (x), (n_x) is the number of observations for taxon (x), (n) is the total number of observations for all taxa, (s_x) is the number of species within taxon (x), and (s) is the total number of species within all taxa.As a measure of model performance, we use the F(_1) score, the harmonic mean of the model’s precision and recall, given by$$begin{aligned} F_1 = frac{tp}{tp + frac{1}{2}(fp + fn)} end{aligned}$$where (tp), (fp) and (fn) stand for true positives, false positives and false negatives, respectively. The F(_1) score is a commonly used metric for model evaluation, as it is less susceptible to data imbalance than model accuracy28.The value of information (VoI) can be generically defined as “the increase in expected value that arises from making the best choice with the benefit of a piece of information compared to the best choice without the benefit of that same information”32. In the current context, we define the VoI as the expected increase in model performance (F(_1) score) when adding one observation with at least one image. To estimate this, for every order included in the experiment, the increase in average F(_1) score over increasing training task sizes were fitted using the Von Bertalanffy Growth Function, given by$$begin{aligned} L = L_infty (1 – e^{-k(t-t_0)}) end{aligned}$$where (L) is the average F(_1) score, (L_infty) is the asymptotic maximum F(_1) score, (k) is the growth rate, (t) is the number of observations per species, and (t_0) is a hypothetical number of observations at which the F(_1) score is 0. The Von Bertalanffy curve was chosen as it contains a limited number of parameters which are intuitive to interpret, and fits the growth of model performance well.The estimated increase in performance at any given point is then given by the slope of this function, i.e. the result of the differentiation of the Von Bertalanffy Growth Curve, given41 by$$begin{aligned} frac{dL}{dt} = bke^{-kt} end{aligned}$$where$$begin{aligned} b = L_infty e^{kt_0} end{aligned}$$Using this derivative function, we can estimate the expected performance increase stemming from one additional observation with images for each of the species within the order. Filling in the average number of citizen science observations with images per Norwegian species in that order for t, and dividing the result by the total number of Norwegian species within the order, provides the VoI of one additional observation with images for that order, expressed as an average expected F(_1) increase. More