Urban noise and surrounding city morphology influence green space occupancy by native birds in a Mediterranean-type South American metropolis
Our research determined noise to share a potentially important negative relationship with native bird richness and abundance and appears to be the most limiting factor in green space occupancy by native bird species, more so than the type and amount of vegetation present in urban green spaces, and more so than urbanization itself, represented as building height and cover surrounding green spaces. Thus, noise is potentially acting as an invisible source of habitat degradation, limiting the bird species capable of inhabiting an area, regardless of whether the appropriate vegetative conditions exist.As predicted, native urban avoiders reached their maximum abundances in PAR, which, given their high vegetation cover and large size, act as patches of natural habitat in cities. Native urban utilizers tended to be found in more suburban areas, and urban dwellers, both native and exotic, were detected in green spaces of all noise levels. All exotic bird species were urban dwellers, referring to their high tolerance to urbanization5,25, thus reaching the high abundances observed, particularly in SGS.SGS possessed higher average noise levels and greater exotic bird abundance than PAR, which presented significantly higher numbers of native bird richness and abundance. The potential influence of noise on native bird species first becomes evident when we consider that native bird abundance tended to rise above the generally high abundance of exotic birds when average noise levels in green spaces reached below 52 dB (it should be noted that, according to the Chilean Noise Norm No. 146, the maximum allowable noise levels generated by fixed sources in residential areas of Santiago is 55 dB during the day, 7 a.m.–9 p.m.). The negative relations between noise and urban avoider, urban utilizer, and urban dweller species richness and abundance further indicate how noise may be regulating the native bird species present in green spaces, affecting urban avoider richness the most and urban dweller richness the least, while influencing the abundance of all native bird species rather similarly. Meanwhile, building height surrounding green spaces negatively influenced native urban avoider and urban dweller richness and abundance, with the greatest influence on urban dweller abundance, yet all native birds were less likely to be detected in green spaces surrounded by buildings over 10 m tall on average.The importance of vegetation for native bird communities also cannot be denied, given that native birds reached higher abundances than exotic birds when vegetation cover reached an average NDVI value greater than 0.5. Results from this study thus suggest that exotic birds begin to replace native birds in terms of abundance as noise levels rise in urban green spaces, vegetation cover decreases, and building height surrounding green spaces increases, with native urban avoider species being the least tolerant to the influences of urbanization, and, consequently, the first to disappear when noise levels and building height become too great. The observed negative relationship between native bird species richness and maximum noise levels, and the positive relationship with vegetation cover, are comparable to results seen in other Neotropical cities24,26, yet our results indicate that the relationships between these variables and bird abundance are stronger. This may indicate how bird abundance fluctuates in green spaces as some birds temporarily leave during noisy events or become quieter and more cryptic under noisy conditions26, while noise also negatively influences bird species richness by filtering the species that can inhabit areas of varying noise levels.Detection probability models found native bird detectability to mostly increase with vegetation cover and tree cover in urban green spaces, except for the common diuca finch, whose detectability decreased with rising tree cover. Some of the bird species that displayed the lowest detection probabilities, such as the picui ground dove and fire-eyed diucon (Xolmis pyrope), are not frequently found in cities and possess vocalizations that are unlikely to be heard well in high-noise areas due to their low frequencies, making them more easily masked by the anthrophony, characterized by its low frequency and high intensity31. Consequently, birds whose vocalizations are similar in frequency and amplitude to the anthrophony were more commonly or exclusively found in green spaces that registered low noise levels, their detectability also decreasing with rising noise, as was the case with the fire-eyed diucon.Urban green space occupancy by native bird species was mainly influenced by average maximum noise levels recorded in green spaces. Of the modeled native species, the long-tailed meadowlark and the picui ground dove, an urban avoider and an urban utilizer species respectively, were the species most sensitive to noise, their probability of occupying green spaces with average maximum noise levels over 55 dB decreasing rapidly and approaching zero when over 65 dB. Meanwhile, the austral thrush, an urban dweller species, was by far the most tolerant to noise of the native birds, its presence probability just beginning to decrease when average maximum noise levels reached over 73 dB in green spaces. The differing tendencies of urban avoiders, urban utilizers, and urban dwellers to occupy green spaces of varying noise levels is thus evident, with native urban dweller species more likely to occupy higher noise urban green spaces than urban avoiders and utilizers, seemingly more adapted to the high noise levels that come with inhabiting a busy city. Nonetheless, although native urban dwellers displayed greater noise tolerances than urban avoiders and utilizers, their presence in city parks can also be expected to diminish if noise levels become too high, which for the most tolerant of the native birds, means reaching an average maximum level of 73 dB or more, but 55 dB or more for less tolerant species.No relation was found between vegetation cover and noise, and some of the highest noise levels were recorded in PAR. This suggests that PAR, often considered to be quiet and peaceful areas to escape the busyness of city life, can reach noise levels as high as those recorded in SGS, reducing the quality of the greatest sources of natural habitat for birds and other wildlife in cities.The results from this study regarding the influence of noise on bird communities support previous studies indicating that birds may be excluded from suitable habitats on account of the acoustic conditions of the local environment12,15. Despite abundant vegetation in PAR and some SGS, certain bird species, particularly urban avoiders and utilizers, were less likely to occupy areas that presented high noise levels. However, it is important to consider other potential influencing factors, such as predators (e.g., dogs and cats) and food availability, both of which could be linked to pedestrians and could therefore also increase noise levels in green spaces. Furthermore, in an effort to focus on the influence of anthropogenic variables on urban birds (i.e., urban morphology, noise, and vegetation type and cover), this study did not consider the size of urban green spaces as a variable in occupancy modeling, but as the results of this study suggest and others in Latin America have shown23,32, green space size is likely an influencing factor that should be considered in future studies. Another variable worth considering would be road coverage, which undoubtedly plays a role in noise levels, particularly for SGS.Measures to control the COVID-19 pandemic have significantly reduced noise levels in major cities worldwide33,34,35. Noise reduction in the San Francisco Bay Area, characterized by a Mediterranean climate like Santiago, resulted in songbirds rapidly occupying newly available acoustic niches within urban soundscapes and maximizing communication through higher performance songs35. Consequently, native bird species not commonly found in high-noise areas, mainly urban avoider and utilizer species, may now be found in greater abundance at the community level in urban green spaces where they had been scarce or non-existent during this study, conducted pre-pandemic. Furthermore, if average noise levels dropped below 52 dB in Santiago green spaces due to region-wide shut-down measures, native birds may reach higher abundances than exotic birds. The negative effects of urban noise on bird communities are extensive, yet recent research indicating birds’ rapid adaptability and improved vocal performance when noise levels are significantly lowered provides hope. Native bird species susceptible to noise may stand a chance despite growing urbanization, if noise levels in urban green spaces are regulated.Rapid urban expansion in Latin America places natural ecosystems at great risk, reducing or altogether eliminating natural habitats for native birds and other wildlife, making urban green spaces necessary for their persistence, especially in biodiversity hotspots like central Chile. As this study illustrates, noise associated with urbanization plays a significant role in influencing green space occupancy by native bird species, and, quite possibly, other animal species dependent on acoustic signaling (e.g., amphibians and mammals). Given the recreational role of urban green spaces in cities, noise regulation within these areas should be considered, while also considering how city morphology may impact bird communities. This study exemplifies how, in addition to noise, the size of urban green spaces and the vegetation cover in them, particularly tree cover, are vital aspects to consider in city planning in order to preserve native bird communities in urban systems. Large urban parks held significantly richer bird communities than small green spaces, with greater native bird richness and abundance. Therefore, it is imperative that science and city planning collaborate to develop cities with networks of large green spaces with abundant tree cover, surrounded by smaller urban morphology, where noise is regulated and maintained at tolerable levels for native birds. There is a clear need to move towards biophilic city planning to harmonize urban growth and the protection and expansion of networks of green areas that generate habitat for birds that, in turn, provide important ecosystem services to cities. More
