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Concentration of TPHs in surface soilsStatistical results of TPHs concentrations at different geographic oilfields were showed in Fig. 2, and grid regional distribution of TPHs in YC Oilfield surface soils (Y6–Y25) were shown in Fig. 3. Results are given as mean value of triplicate analysis of each sample. The results of TPHs concentration in soil samples showed that the three oilfields all suffered from varying degrees of petroleum pollution, and 60.92% of the 47 sampling points was significantly higher than the soil critical value (500 mg/kg). The average concentration of the TPHs in each study areas conformed to be in the following law: SL Oilfield (average: 5.36 × 103 mg/kg) ( >) NY Oilfield (average: 1.73 × 103 mg/kg) ( >) YC Oilfield (average: 1.37 × 103 mg/kg). The highest concentration of the TPHs were found in SL Oilfield surface soils, ranging from 1.21 × 102 to 6.66 × 104 mg/kg, and NY Oilfield had the second highest TPHs concentrations in the range from 15.82 to 7.42 × 103 mg/kg. The concentrations of TPHs in YC Oilfield ranged from 12.34 to 5.38 × 103 mg/kg. The petroleum contamination mainly derived from abandoned and working oil wells. S4 and S8 soils were collected near the abandoned oil well and working oil well, respectively, and had the highest concentration of TPHs up to 5.28 × 104 and 6.66 × 104 mg/kg. Y1, N8 near the abandoned oil well also had high concentration of TPHs with 5.39 × 103 and 7.42 × 103 mg/kg, respectively. Pollution caused by grounded crude oil in exploitation process has been a serious problem in oilfield area. Our previous research reported that the TPHs content in Dagang Oilfield soils collected adjacent to working oil wells were about 20-folds higher than that in corn soils and living area soils25. Concentration contour map of TPHs in YC Oilfield by grid sampling method showed that regional pollution in the northwest and southeast area are more serious than other sites. Y6 near the gas station and Y15, Y21, Y23 adjacent to the working oil wells have higher concentration (2.12 × 103–5.34 × 103 mg/kg) of TPHs than other farmland and grass soils. Previous study reported that the concentrations of TPHs ranged 7.0 × 102–4.0 × 103 mg/kg in oil exploitation areas of the loess plateau region (34°20′N,107°10′E), showing a similar pollution level with this study26.Figure 2The concentration of TPHs in three oilfield soils.Full size imageFigure 3Grid regional distribution of TPHs in YC Oilfield.Full size imageThe percentage composition of total PAHs, SHs and polar components of petroleum hydrocarbons were shown in Table 1. In general, the dominant petroleum component was saturated hydrocarbons in all soils, accounting more than 50%. Yet, the percentage proportion of PAHs and SHs in contamination soils adjacent to working and abandon oil wells were significantly different (p  BbF (14.16–21.87%) ≫ BaA, Chr, InP, and BkF (less than 10%). This result aligned to the previous study that the contribution of individual PAHs to the TEQs of ∑PAH16 was BaP (45%)  > DBA (33%) in urban surface dust of Xi’an city, China46. Therefore, contamination control should priority focus on the individual PAHs of BaP, DBA, BbF in these areas. In addition, the ecological risk with abandoned time ranging 0–15 years has been assessed, and the descriptive statistic TEQBap of PAHs was shown in Supporting Information, Table S6. The highest TEQs of ∑PAH16 and ∑PAH7 with mean of 1422.27 μg/kg and 1400.48 μg/kg, respectively, were present in soils adjacent to abandoned oil well with abandoned time of 0—5 years. And the TEQs of ∑PAH16 and ∑PAH7 decreased with the abandoned time though the percentage proportion of PAHs increased. The TEQs of ∑PAH16 and ∑PAH7 were close between abandoned time of 5–10 years and 10—15 years while both had high content. It demonstrated that high ecological risk was persistent in abandoned oil well areas over abandoned time of 15 years, and basically stable after 5 years. Therefore, abandoned oil well areas need to be blocked to prevent PAHs entering the external environment, and combine physical–chemical technology for petroleum remediation instead of simple weathering biological processes.Table 3 Descriptive statistic TEQBap of PAHs in different sampling area.Full size tableAs referred the PAHs standard of Dutch soil, TEQs of ∑PAH7 was 32.02 μg/kg, calculated by ten individual PAHs times TEFs. In this study, the mean TEQs of ∑PAH7 were about 35- and 10-folds of Dutch soil in petro-related area soils and grassland soils, indicating a high and medium ecological risk in these soils respectively. However, the mean TEQs of ∑PAH7 in farmland soils (18.80 μg/kg) was below Dutch soil, presenting a low potential ecological risk. It should be noted that the minimum of TEQs of ∑PAH7 in grassland soil was 26.24 μg/kg less than TEQs of ∑PAH7 in Dutch soil, but it was vulnerable affected by the surrounding soils with high TEQs of ∑PAH7. In this study, except the farmland soils, TEQs of ∑PAH7 exhibited higher TEQ values than those reported soils in Santiago, Chile47 and Nepal24, and road dust in Tianjin, China48. Overall, the most threat of ecological risk in petro-related soils caused by the anthropogenic PAHs input, such like oil leakage, oil refining, and fossil energy combustion. Preventing oil spills accident and developing the remediation methods are the main significant ways to reduce the ecological risks in these areas. The medium ecological risk in grassland might result from the migration of PAHs via rainfall pathway. Therefore, establishment the oil-blocking isolation zones is the critical way for medium ecological risk areas to control petroleum inflow. Even though the low ecological risk was identified in farmland soils, PAHs source analysis indicated that the biomass combustion should be controlled in these areas. More

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Of which at the third instar, the external morphology of larvae is quite similar; thus, the morphological identification used to differentiate between its genera or species, generally includes cephalophalyngeal skeleton, anterior spiracle, and posterior spiracles. The morphology of the posterior spiracle is one of the important characteristics for identification. A typical morphology of the posterior spiracle of third stage larvae was shown in Fig. 2. Based on studying under light microscopy, the posterior spiracle of M. domestica was clearly distinguished from the others. On the other hand, the morphology of the posterior spiracle of C. megacephala and A. rufifacies was quite similar. For C. megacephala and C. rufifacies, the peritreme, a structure encircling the three spiracular openings (slits), was incomplete and slits were straight as shown Fig. 2A,B, respectively. The complete peritreme encircling three slits was found in L. cuprina and M. domestica as shown in Fig. 2C,D, respectively. However, only the slits of M. domestica were sinuous like the M-letter (Fig. 2D). Their morphological characteristics found in this study were like the descriptions in the previous reports23,24,25.Figure 2Morphology of posterior spiracles of four different fly species after inverting the image colors; (A) Chrysomya (Achoetandrus) ruffifacies, (B) Chrysomya megacephala, (C) Lucilia cuprina, (D) Musca domestica.Full size imageFor model training, four of the CNN models used for species-level identification of fly maggots provided 100% accuracy rates and 0% loss. Number of parameter (#Params), model speed, model size, macro precision, macro recall, f1-score, and support value were also presented in Table 1. The result demonstrated that the AlexNet model provided the best performance in all indicators when compared among four models. The AlexNet model used the least number of parameters while the Resnet101 model used the most. For model speed, the AlexNet model provided the fastest speed, while the Densenet161 model provided the slowest speed. For the model size, the AlexNet model was the smallest, while the Resnet101 model was the largest which corresponded to the number of parameters used. Macro precision, macro recall, f1-score and support value of all models were the same.Table 1 Comparison of model size, speed, and performances of each studied model (The text in bold indicates the best value in each category).Full size tableAs the training results presented in the supplementary data (Fig. S1), all models provided 100% accuracy and 0% loss in the early stage of training ( More