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Daily change in primary pollutantsTo elucidate the change trend of primary pollutants under the 13th Five-Year Plan, we calculated the daily primary pollutants in 2015 and 2019 based on formula (1) and formula (2). Such diurnal comparisons can reduce the effects of seasonal weather to some extent. From the 19 UAs (224 prefecture-level cities), the heat diagram of the daily change transfer matrix of primary pollutants from 2015 to 2019 is shown in Fig. 2, including six primary pollutants and clean day conditions.Figure 2Transfer change matrix heatmap of primary pollutants from 2015 to 2019.Full size imageFrom the sum of the diagonal numbers, 37% of the primary pollutants had no shift during the 13th Five-Year Plan period. PM2.5, PM10 and O3 were the main primary pollutants, especially PM2.5. More primary pollutants were diverted to ozone pollution, indicating that the proportion of O3 as the primary pollutant is gradually increasing. In addition, the proportion of clean air has increased significantly, which shows that pollution control has been effectively reflected during the 13th Five-Year Plan period. However, the proportion of NO2 before and after metastasis was approximately the same, with approximately 5% NO2 pollution. This may imply that the governance of NO2 pollution was rendered nonsignificant. It is noteworthy that ozone pollution in China has become an increasingly prominent task in recent years. Similar to Xiao’s16 research on ozone pollution, they argue that present-day ozone levels in major Chinese cities are comparable to or even higher than the 1980 levels in the United States. Taken together, ozone and PM2.5 have become the top two air pollution pollutants in China.Monthly distribution of primary pollutantsTo further explore the spatiotemporal distribution of the primary pollutants across the UAs, we obtained the most primary pollutants per month by dividing the number of days with the most pollutants by the number of cities in each UA from the 2019 data. In Fig. 3, the UAs location was plotted on the abscissa, and the monthly variance of the primary pollutant was plotted on the ordinate. As shown in Fig. 3, PM2.5 appeared as dark green, PM10 appeared as light green, O3 appeared as orange, NO2 appeared as yellow, and clean days appear as dark blue. The main pollutants in the 19 UAs are PM2.5, PM10 and O3. NO2, as the primary pollutant, only appeared in the HBOY UA in January. Ordos, located in HBOY, possess rich oil and coal resources, with coal mining as its leading industry38. According to the China Energy Statistical Yearbook 2019, nearly 250 million tons of raw coal were used for thermal power generation in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, making it the region with the largest amount of raw coal for thermal power generation in China39. To a certain extent, the increase of heating40 and the imperfect denitration technology41 are both contributing to the increase of NO2 pollution in the atmosphere. CO and SO2 did not become major pollutants. Clean days (where AQI  More

AffiliationsDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USAMarjolein Bruijning, Lucas P. Henry, Simon K. G. Forsberg, C. Jessica E. Metcalf & Julien F. AyrolesLewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton, NJ, USALucas P. Henry, Simon K. G. Forsberg & Julien F. AyrolesAuthorsMarjolein BruijningLucas P. HenrySimon K. G. ForsbergC. Jessica E. MetcalfJulien F. AyrolesCorresponding authorCorrespondence to
Marjolein Bruijning. More

In recent years there has been an increasing concern regarding the global decline of pollinators and pollination services1,2,3. Recent studies estimate that over 87% of the flowering plant species rely on biotic pollination4. Pollination is a mutualistic interaction, and plants provide pollinators with various rewards, including nectar, oil, or excess pollen to feed upon5,6. Although bees are the most well-known pollinator group, pollination can be performed by a wide variety of species, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and other insects.Plant-pollinator interactions are among the key processes that generate and maintain biodiversity7,8. The coevolutionary processes involved in animal pollination have helped maintain the structure and function of entire communities and species’ networks. Wild plant species and natural ecosystems provide several products and services, including nutrient cycling, medicine, food, a source of pollinators for domesticated crops, and alternative food and shelter sources for agricultural pollinators9. However, the complex web of interactions and the large number of species involved (ca. 400,000 species globally) makes it challenging to estimate pollinators’ value in natural ecosystems, particularly when the life history of so many pollinator species remains little studied and understood10.Pollinators also provide highly valuable ecosystem services to crops11,12. More than 70% of the world’s crops depend directly on insect pollination, making pollination key to food security11,13. The European honeybee (Apis mellifera) is likely the most economically important pollinator of crops worldwide13,14. Honeybees are adaptable, easy to manage, and cost-efficient. However, in recent years, ‘colony collapse’ caused by several factors, including parasitic mites and the excessive use of pesticides and herbicides, have led to a decline in managed honeybee colonies in many parts of the world15,16,17. Similarly, habitat loss and fragmentation have detrimental effects on both native and commercial pollinators. In degraded habitats, pollinators struggle to find resources and nesting sites18,19,20.In Chile, pollination represents a multimillion-dollar business. Between January and October 2020, the export of Chilean fruit reached USD 4.149 million, while fresh vegetables generated USD 347 million during the same period21. Although agricultural pollinators have been well studied, native pollinators remain largely unknown. With over 460 species of native bees in Chile, approximately 70% are endemic; researchers have only begun to understand the relationships between native plants and their pollinators22,23,24. Also, managed honeybees and bumblebees introduced to Chile for crop pollination are highly invasive and easily leave croplands to forage in neighbouring native ecosystems25,26, competing directly with native pollinators for the ever-diminishing resources in native grasslands and forests posing a threat to Chile’s unique ecoregions25,27.Because of the importance of pollination in the maintenance of biodiversity and the economic benefits of agricultural crop production, there is an urgent need to understand the causes behind the current decline in pollinator species. In this sense, collating and reviewing existing information on pollinators and making this information easily accessible in the form of a user-friendly database is of immeasurable value. In this study, we compiled the information available about pollination and pollinators (sensu lato) for Chile, aiming to understand plant-pollinator interactions, identify knowledge and geographic gaps, and provide a baseline from which to carry out further studies. We aimed to make a datasheet with a format that was adaptable to different regions and other countries by allowing it to be easily understood, easy to access and find and aiming to avoid duplicity of data. This study represents the first systematic effort to compile the available information on pollination and pollinators for Chile. This pollination catalogue for Chile adds to other international efforts of systematising this information as, for example, the Catalogue of Afrotropical Bees28 and the CPC Plant Pollinators Database29. More

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Sentinel-1 data selectionThe Copernicus Sentinel-1 mission was launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) in 2014 with the Sentinel-1A satellite, complemented with the second Sentinel-1B satellite in 2016. Each satellite has a 12-days repeat cycle. Continuity of the Sentinel-1 mission has been approved by ESA until 2030 and replacement satellites will be launched. The satellites operate in different acquisition modes over different parts of the globe. Land masses are covered primarily by the Interferometric Wide-Swath Mode (IW) with a 250 km swath width across-track. Single-look-complex (SLC) Level 1.1 data are required for interferometric processing. Along-track, Sentinel-1 data are sliced into consecutive frames (slices) of about 250 km length. Data are distributed via ESA’s Scientific Sentinel-1 Hub, which is mirrored at NASA’s Alaska Satellite Facility DAAC (ASF-DAAC). During production, Sentinel-1 SLC data were accessed on the ASF-DAAC data repository which resides on Amazon’s AWS S3 bucket in region us-west-2.Sentinel-1 satellites cover various parts of Earth in ascending and descending flight direction in a total of 175 relative orbits. ESA’s flight plan has some areas covered every six days and in both flight directions, predominantly over Europe. For the production of this data set, Sentinel-1 SLC frames were selected from all available scenes acquired between December 1st 2019 and November 30th 2020. Over the one-year timeframe, a maximum of 30 to 31 acquisitions at 12-days repeat, and 60 to 61 acquisitions at 6-days repeat intervals can be expected. The following selection criteria were applied consecutively to achieve global coverage with uniform distribution of acquisitions across seasons (Fig. 1):

Global descending data (Fig. 1a) were selected where the one-year stack size had at least 25 acquisitions.

Spatial gaps were filled with ascending data (Fig. 1a) where the one-year stack size had at least 25 acquisitions.

For spatial consistency, over conterminous North America north of Panama, preference was given to ascending data where both ascending and descending data existed with stack sizes over 25 acquisitions.

For stack sizes less than 25 acquisitions, preference was given to the flight direction with the larger number of acquisitions.

Remaining gaps were filled with data from the flight direction available.

Fig. 1Flight direction, polarization mode, and InSAR stack sizes of 6- and 12-days repeat coverage of Sentinel-1 data acquired between December 1st 2019 and November 30th 2020 selected for processing.Full size imageArctic and Antarctic regions are typically covered with polarization modes of horizontal transmit (HH single- or HH/HV dual-polarization). Figure 1b shows the global distribution of the processed data in horizontal and vertical polarization transmit modes, respectively. Table 1 summarizes the number of selected scenes in the two flight directions and various polarization modes. The total number of processed Sentinel-1 SLC frames came to ~205,000 scenes with a total raw input data volume of about 850 Terabytes. Figure 1c,d show the spatial distribution of the final scene selection with the number of 6- and 12-days repeat-pass image pairs. Consistent 6-days repeat coverage with about sixty image pairs from either ascending or descending orbits could be processed over Europe, the coastal areas of Greenland and Antarctica, and some smaller areas around the world; note that in some regions (e.g., India, interior Greenland, Northern Canada, Eastern China) 6-days repeat coverage was available in certain seasons only (Fig. 1c). A consistent coverage with 12-days repeat-pass imagery, instead, could be processed almost globally with the nominal maximum of about thirty repeat-pass pairs in areas where only one satellite, Sentinel-1A or Sentinel-1B, acquired data in all but few areas above 60° N in Canada, Greenland, or Russia (Fig. 1d). In some small areas in the Midwestern United States, the Khabarovsk region in Far-Eastern Russia, or in the Northern Sahara, neither Sentinel-1A nor Sentinel-1B acquire data in IW mode, leading to small gaps in the final data set.Table 1 Number of Sentinel-1 Single Look Complex scenes processed.Full size tableProcessing approachThe overall processing workflow was developed based on the interferometric processing software developed by GAMMA Remote Sensing and geared towards efficient processing in the Amazon Web Services (AWS) cloud environment utilizing Earth Big Data LLC’s cloud scaling solutions. The workflow is divided into three main blocks as illustrated in Fig. 2. Sentinel-1A and -1B acquire data along 175 relative orbits/orbital tracks. Blocks 1 and 2 were processed on a per relative orbit basis; block 3 was initiated after blocks 1 and 2 had been completed for all relative orbits.Fig. 2Implementation of the Sentinel-1 interferometric processor in the AWS cloud environment.Full size imageProcessing Block 1For each SLC of a given relative orbit, processing block 1 entailed:

1.

Conversion of SLC image files to a GAMMA specific format. Each Sentinel-1 SLC, covering an area of ~250 × 250 km, consists of six SLC image files (one SLC image file for each of the three sub-swaths in co- (VV or HH) and cross-polarizations (VH or HV).

2.

Compensation of the SLC amplitudes for the noise equivalent sigma zero (NESZ).

3.

The orbit state vectors provided with the original Sentinel-1 SLCs were updated with the precision state vectors (AUX_POEORB) distributed by the Sentinel-1 payload data ground segment 20 days after data take with a precision (3σ) generally of the order of 1 cm (target requirement  More