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When Mariuá, a 1.5-year-old female jaguar, set foot in our breeding centre in Argentina in December 2018, we did not know that she would make history. Two years later, she walked out with two cubs: the first jaguars to roam the 1.4 million hectares of the Iberá wetlands of northeastern Argentina for at least 70 years. Mariuá and her cubs have started to reverse a process that some had thought irreversible.Within decades, one million species out of a total of some eight million could go extinct globally1. Hunting, habitat loss and ecosystem degradation are propelling this unprecedented biodiversity crisis. Current extinction rates are 100 to 1,000 times higher than in the past several million years.Argentina is no exception. Over the past 150 years, 5 bird and 4 mammal species have gone extinct. Today, about 17% of the country’s 3,000 vertebrate species are imperilled2, and 13 out of the 18 extant species of large mammal, from anteaters to tapirs, are experiencing catastrophic declines, in terms of both number and geographical range (see http://cma.sarem.org.ar).In 1998, we started a rewilding programme in Argentina to try to reverse this appalling loss. Our non-profit foundation, Fundación Rewilding Argentina, was spun out from the US non-profit organization Tompkins Conservation. We create protected areas where we can reintroduce native species, re-establish their interactions, restore ecosystem functionality and build valuable ecotourism based on wildlife viewing.Both rewilding and ecotourism can be controversial. We think that our work is an instructive example of how active restoration of crucial species, when done responsibly, can benefit both ecosystems and local people. It should be in the toolkit for meeting the 2030 biodiversity targets that will be discussed at the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Conference of the Parties in Kunming, China, next month.Three stepsThe popularity of rewilding projects is growing. These include: wolves brought back to Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, beavers to England, bison and musk ox to northern Russia, leopards to Mozambique and Tasmanian devils to mainland Australia. The International Union for Conservation of Nature reports that, since 2008, at least 418 reintroduction projects have been started3. Most of these projects occur in protected areas and involve one or a few species. Our work in Argentina is broader.As a first step, we acquire private lands with philanthropic funds, reintroduce many species and form government-protected areas that are donated to federal and provincial governments. So far, we have purchased and donated about 400,000 hectares, with an estimated market value of US$91 million. This has created and enlarged six national parks, one national reserve and two provincial parks. Another 100,000 hectares are being donated. Together, these lands comprise a little over 10% of the total terrestrial area currently managed by the National Parks Administration of Argentina.The second step is to restore ecosystems, mainly by reintroducing species at an unprecedented scale. We spend more than $3 million each year on rewilding activities in three regions: the Iberá wetlands in the northeast, the dry Chaco forests in the north and the Patagonian steppe and coast in the south. Most often, we work with species deemed to have large impacts at the ecosystem level, such as large predators and herbivores.

Jaguars now roam Argentina’s Iberá wetlands for the first time in more than 70 years.Credit: Matías Rebak

Thus far, we have successfully reintroduced pampas deer, giant anteaters and collared peccaries (a pig-like, hoofed animal). We have also started founding populations of jaguars, coypus (large aquatic rodents), Wolffsohn’s viscachas (rodents that resemble a large chinchilla), red-and-green macaws and bare-faced curassows (birds related to chickens and pheasants). We are currently working on the reintroduction of 14 species.As they become abundant, reintroduced species re-weave the fabric of ecological relationships. For example, jaguars (Panthera onca) and macaws (Ara chloropterus) are reviving a crucial interaction: predation. Jaguars have begun to prey on eight species, including native rodents and feral hogs, which could limit those populations and thus benefit vegetation growth. The macaws are consuming 49 plant species, which could enhance seed dispersal, although this remains to be tested.
Include the true value of nature when rebuilding economies after coronavirus
Third, we invest heavily in infrastructure, capacity building and publicity to create an economy based on ecotourism. The species we work with are often highly charismatic, which benefits local communities, creating an economic incentive to conserve native wildlife and habitats. We organize workshops and courses so that locals can train as nature guides, cooks, craftspeople and more. In Iberá, where our work is most advanced, tourist visits increased by 87% between 2015 and 2021, according to official data from the Iberá wetland management agency. There were more than 50,000 visitors last year, despite the COVID-19 pandemic.All of these steps are important: simply setting aside protected areas is not enough. Globally, most modern ecosystems are ecologically damaged4, even in long-standing protected areas5. In Argentina, for example, functional populations of jaguars are missing from 19 of 22 national parks where historical distribution data suggest this key apex predator should occur.Jaguars and capybarasOur flagship project is the rewilding of the Iberá wetland. There, we are working on the restoration of nine species, including jaguars, which were eradicated from this area more than 70 years ago. We have now established a founding population of eight individuals: one adult male and three adult females, two of which (including Mariuá) were each released with two cubs aged four months. Our goal is to release a total of 20 individuals by 2027.Of all the species we work with, giant otters (Pteronura brasiliensis) and macaws have been the most difficult. Both species are extinct in the wild in Argentina. Bureaucratic hurdles have made sourcing wild individuals from neighbouring countries impossible.We obtained two pairs of giant otters from European zoos, and are holding them in pens in the core of Iberá. After several attempts, one pair bred successfully and the female gave birth to three cubs, producing the first litter born in the country for more than 30 years. We plan to release this family to the wild next year.

This female giant river otter, together with a male and their three cubs, will be released to the wild in Argentina next year to create a founding population.Credit: Matías Rebak

We source macaws, which have been extinct in the wild in Argentina for 100 years, from zoos, wildlife shelters and breeding centres. Because of their captive origin, we must give them the opportunity to practise flying in an aviary. We provide them with native foods, so that they learn what to eat, and we use a remote-controlled stuffed fox to teach them to avoid predators. This training isn’t always successful. Out of the 87 macaws that we have worked with, 48 were healthy and skilled enough to release. Two founding populations now thrive in the wild; one of them began reproducing in 2020.Efforts elsewhere have demonstrated the powerful effects of restoring species. In the northeast Pacific Ocean, reintroduced sea otters (Enhydra lutris) have voraciously eaten sea urchins, which in turn has allowed the return of lush kelp forests6. In Yellowstone Park, some researchers argue that reintroduced wolves have discouraged herbivores from foraging along stream edges, which might have increased tree growth and stabilized stream banks7. In Mozambique’s Gorongosa Park, the return of wildebeest and other large herbivores has curtailed Mimosa pigra, an undesirable invasive shrub8.
Biodiversity needs every tool in the box: use OECMs
Our rewilding work in Argentina could also have profound impacts. Close monitoring of the female jaguars and their cubs in the Iberá wetland has shown that they are largely feeding on the most abundant native prey: capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). Reducing the number of capybaras is expected to allow more vegetation to thrive, providing habitat for arthropods and small vertebrates, and possibly increasing carbon sequestration9. It could also help to reduce the transmission of sarcoptic mange, a density-dependent disease plaguing the capybara population. Jaguars also prey on foxes, which might benefit threatened bird species. We are working with several academic institutions to test how the return of the jaguar is reshaping the ecosystem.Challenges and caveatsAs our rewilding work gained momentum, critics ramped up from different fronts. At first, some were fearful of our policy of acquiring private lands with funds provided largely by foreign philanthropists. Those concerns faded when we began donating the land to federal and provincial governments.Then, ranchers argued that we were taking agricultural land out of production and reintroducing or boosting populations of animals that would conflict with their livestock. For example, in Patagonia, we established several protected areas where pumas (Puma concolor) and guanacos (Lama guanicoe, a relative of the llama) thrive. For almost a century, ranchers have trapped, shot and poisoned these animals, blaming them for killing sheep and competing for forage, respectively. We are conducting research to quantify the impact of pumas and guanacos on livestock, and offering alternative job opportunities based on wildlife viewing.

Red-and-green macaws went extinct in Argentina in the late 1800s. Rewilding efforts that began in 2016 have now established two founding populations in the Iberá wetlands.Credit: Matías Rebak

Federal and state managers, and often academics, argue that some founding populations of reintroduced species are too small and genetically related to create a viable, long-term population. This is true in some cases. But careful releases of unrelated animals can sidestep this issue. Worries about the spread of diseases when translocating individuals is also often invoked as a reason to halt rewilding activities. We implement thorough health checks and rigorous quarantines to decrease the risk of introducing unwanted diseases in the regions where we work.Concerns are sometimes raised about whether reintroduced species will recreate historical conditions, or instead create something new. Rewilding, however, seeks to regenerate and maintain ecological processes and biodiversity, rather than reaching some specific, historical equilibrium10. We think it is preferable to assume the uncertainties in trying to restore ecosystems, rather than accepting their degraded state.
Protect the last of the wild
Another worry is the possible impacts that tourism can have on climate, biodiversity and society — for instance, on water use, aviation emissions, road building and so on. Our strategy is to limit visitor numbers and avoid crowding by constructing multiple access gates on existing dirt roads.There are many policies that hinder rather than help rewilding. In Argentina, the laws that regulate transportation of wildlife species are built on the assumption that such activities always represent a threat to conservation. Wild animals can typically be imported to the country only through an airport in Buenos Aires. Because of this, an animal that could be driven in a truck from Brazil in a few hours must instead fly more than 1,500 kilometres and then be driven all the way back to its release area. Receiving wild animals at another international port, or moving them around within the country, requires special permits that often take months to obtain. Regulations could be altered to ease rewilding efforts while still policing the illegal wildlife trade.Next stepsNature-based tourism has been growing globally at rates of more than 4% per year, particularly in low- and middle-income countries11. Charismatic fauna, including large predators, are becoming increasingly important. In the Brazilian Pantanal, the world’s largest wetland, wildlife viewing — mostly of jaguars — generated an annual revenue of $6.8 million in 2015. This is three times the revenue obtained from traditional cattle ranching in that region12.With about 97% of the planet’s land surface ravaged by humans4, nature is facing its last stand. Urgent measures are needed not only to halt but also to reverse ecosystem and biodiversity loss. The active reintroduction of key species is one powerful way to heal some degraded ecosystems.This daunting task should not fall solely to non-profit organizations that have limited funds and staff, like us. The United Nations launched its Decade on Ecosystem Restoration in June 2021, calling for massive restoration efforts worldwide to heal nature and the climate. To achieve meaningful results at a global scale, rewilding needs the support of many stakeholders and effective international cooperation. Crucially, it requires the active involvement of governments to facilitate, fund and lead restoration efforts.

Nature 603, 225-227 (2022)
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00631-4

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Continental, regional, and local spatiotemporal patterns of carbon lossFor Africa’s primary tropical humid forest, carbon losses due to forest disturbances reached 42.2 ± 5.1 MtC yr−1 (mean ± standard deviation, where MtC yr−1 is one million metric tons of carbon loss per year) in 2019 and 53.4 ± 6.5 MtC yr−1 in 2020. Just 9 countries out of the 23 analyzed accounted for 95.0% of total gross losses in 2019 and 94.3% in 2020. These countries contain about 95.7% of all primary tropical humid forests of Africa, with the DRC accounting for 52.8%, Gabon 11.8%, the Republic of the Congo 11.0%, and Cameroon 9.8%. Of these, DRC and Cameroon were responsible for 49.3% and 19.1% of losses in 2019 and 44.7% and 20.6% in 2020. DRC and Cameroon had an annual increase of 15.0% and 36.5% respectively, between 2019 and 2020. From countries with at least 1 MtC emitted in the two years analyzed, Madagascar had the highest annual increase in carbon loss (+153.9%), while Equatorial Guinea is the only country with a decrease in carbon loss (−20.1%). Extending the carbon loss analysis for both past and future will help to better understand these variations and whether the COVID-19 global pandemic had any influence on the general increase between 2019 and 202019. While the absolute numbers for carbon loss estimates should be treated carefully and a sample-based approach should be preferred for an unbiased estimate of absolute numbers20, we focused our analysis on the trends of carbon loss at the continental, country, and local scale (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 1).Fig. 1: Carbon loss across Africa’s rainforests.We analyzed 23 countries containing primary moist forest. The aboveground carbon stock (green palette) underlies the carbon loss estimations (red palette). Several hotspots can be seen across these regions. The uncertainties of the carbon loss estimations are expressed as standard deviations and shown in Supplementary Fig. 1.Full size imageThe high temporal detail of the analysis revealed various monthly patterns of carbon losses for countries, highly related to local rainfall patterns18 (Fig. 2). Countries like Cameroon, Liberia, Nigeria, Central African Republic (CAR), and Madagascar showed a clear dry-wet seasonal variation in carbon loss per year, while the Republic of the Congo and the DRC, due to their latitudinal extent, exhibited two dry-wet season variations per year with varying intensities (Fig. 2). The seasonal variation can be explained by higher accessibility to forests during the dry months when activities related to smallholder agriculture and logging are more feasible than in the wet season when many roads become inaccessible.Fig. 2: Temporal patterns of carbon loss for the top 10 countries.We show monthly statistics for 2019 and 2020 and the associated uncertainty (black lines). We separate between high (red bars) and low (yellow bars) confidence alerts, the latter showing up for the last 3 months of 2020.Full size imageOne of the highest differences between the months with the most and the least carbon losses was found for Madagascar (72 times more carbon loss in March compared to November 2019). In CAR, the three consecutive months with the highest cumulative carbon loss (January to March 2020) contributed to 75.7% of the total annual loss (between February and April 2020), in Nigeria 73.9% (January to March 2020), Liberia 73.1% (February to April 2020), Madagascar 70.7% (September to November 2020), and Cameroon 62.2% (January to March 2020). Lower percentages were found for countries with mixed seasonality and patterns, like DRC 36.7% (January to March 2020), and the Republic of the Congo 32.8% (January to March 2020) (Fig. 2). For the latter two countries, we expect better-defined peaks of carbon loss at local scales, where climatic conditions are not mixed. The annual cumulative carbon loss (%) per country (Fig. 3) showed that Liberia, Nigeria, CAR, and Cameroon reached between 70-90% of their annual carbon loss in April, while Madagascar reached 60% in October. The DRC, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Ghana have a more gradual monthly increase of cumulative carbon loss with less contrasting seasonality effects. Monthly patterns of carbon losses between the two years analyzed resulted in a correlation coefficient of 0.94 for the CAR, 0.92 for the DRC, 0.91 for Madagascar, 0.90 for Gabon, and 0.83 for Cameroon (Supplementary Fig. 2). For the Republic of the Congo, the two years correlated 0.51. Knowing the peak months of carbon loss for each country and that these patterns are repeatable from one year to another can contribute to better target and prioritize enforcement activities, as well as predicting future patterns and early reporting of annual forest carbon losses.Fig. 3: Annual cumulative carbon loss (%) for both years analyzed, 2019 and 2020.Africa’s total cumulative carbon loss is shown with a black line. The 10 topmost emitting countries out of 23 countries analyzed are shown and represented by distinct colored lines.Full size imageSeveral hotspots of carbon losses can be seen in Fig. 1. The high spatial and temporal details of our analysis are shown in Fig. 4, where several local examples with different drivers of forest disturbances are shown, like logging roads, selective logging, mining, oil palm plantations, urban expansion, and small-holder agriculture. This kind of information, coupled with auxiliary datasets (e.g., legal concessions, protected areas) can identify the legality of forest disturbance21.Fig. 4: Local examples of approx. 10 × 10 km in extent showing different spatiotemporal patterns and drivers of carbon loss.The first column shows the carbon loss, the second column the associated uncertainty, the third column the day-of-the-year when the loss occurred, and the last column shows the monthly distribution of carbon loss and associated uncertainty for each local example. The center coordinates of each location are shown in the third column as latitude and longitude. Exact locations are shown in Supplementary Fig. 3. a Logging roads and selective logging in the Central African Republic, b mining of gold and titanium in the Republic of the Congo, c development of an oil palm plantation in Cameroon, d forest disturbance related to building a new capital city in Equatorial Guinea, and e small-scale agriculture expansion at the edge of the forest in the DRC.Full size imageImplications of rapid monitoring of local carbon lossNear-real time alerts combined with biomass maps result in spatially explicit forest carbon loss, unlike global tabular statistics of national data22,23. We provide new insights into the spatiotemporal dynamics of carbon loss with consistent assessment of accuracy that could enable transparency and completeness for countries reporting on their REDD + progress to the UNFCCC24. We provide monthly carbon loss estimates that could play a key role in local, national, and international forest initiatives for global carbon policy goals25. Such a system can be implemented with minimal costs and is based on open-source datasets and Google Earth Engine cloud computing platform26, thus enabling cost-effective national monitoring of forest carbon loss7. Providing rapid reporting on the location, time, and amount of carbon lost across Africa’s primary humid forest will help undertake immediate action to protect and conserve carbon-rich threatened forests. Furthermore, countries will be able to predict and estimate their annual carbon loss before a reporting period ends, thus having the opportunity to adjust their practices to meet their country-specific commitments for climate change mitigation initiatives.Limitations and future improvementsWe used the RADD alerts (Radar for Detecting Deforestation)18 with a minimum mapping unit (MMU) of 0.2 ha as accuracy estimates were available for this MMU. Events smaller than 0.2 ha would add to the total carbon loss but are by nature associated with higher uncertainties18. The implications of the RADD alerts using a global humid tropical forest product as a forest baseline for 201816,27,28 are twofold. First, the global nature of this product might result in inconsistencies at the local level18. Second, because the forest cover loss information used to generate the forest baseline is based on optical Landsat data, persistent cloud cover in the second half of 2018 in some areas led to missed reporting of forest disturbances, thus being detected at the beginning of 2019 by the RADD alerts. This possible overestimation of carbon loss at the start of 2019 is not an issue for a near-real-time alerting system since later months are not affected. Furthermore, the alerts do not distinguish between human-induced disturbances and natural forest disturbances18. When a new forest disturbance alert is detected, it will be confirmed or rejected within 90 days by subsequent Sentinel-1 images18. That is why our carbon loss reporting separates between high and low confidence alerts for the last three months of 2020, which is common for most forest disturbance alerting products18,29. We separated all the alerts into core and boundary pixels. Core alerts represent complete tree cover removal and we assumed complete carbon loss within a pixel. For boundary alerts, we assumed a 50% carbon loss since these mainly represent forest disturbances with partial tree cover removal. Detecting and quantifying the level of degradation remains challenging and future developments will minimize this uncertainty by providing variable percentages of degraded forest30. The timeliness and spatial details of future forest disturbance alerting products will improve with the availability of open access long-wavelength radar data from near-future satellite missions (e.g., NISAR L-band SAR in 202331), by using a combination of optical and radar forest disturbance alert products, and integration with high-resolution satellite products.We relied on an aboveground biomass baseline map from 201832, prior to RADD alerts starting from 2019. Biomass estimation for the tropical moist forests is based on ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 L-band satellite and its usage needs to account for the local biases, especially underestimating AGB values higher than 250 Mg ha−1 (ref. 32). Although we reduced this underestimation by adjusting the AGB map based on ground field data, more research is needed on providing up-to-date high-resolution aboveground carbon estimates33 that could further increase the accuracy of local carbon loss estimation. Radar-based estimation of forest carbon stocks is challenging over mountainous terrain and is less accurate in complex canopies3 and future integration of radar and optical satellite data will provide more robust estimates33. Nevertheless, new spaceborne missions (e.g., GEDI34, BIOMASS35) will provide an unprecedented amount of forest structure samples that will improve the algorithms and thus the final accuracy of aboveground biomass estimates.We focused on exploring and analyzing local carbon losses and showing high temporal and spatial patterns of carbon losses. We showed the country statistics to emphasize the temporal dynamics of carbon losses and compare the temporal profiles across our study region. Our approach was not to provide stratified area estimations36 associated with forest disturbances but we used this concept in the sense that we had a stratified sample of higher quality reference data18 to estimate the omission and commission errors and consider those in our uncertainty estimation on the pixel level. The analysis showed that omission and commission errors are small and rather balanced, and thus do not result in a major area bias for the forest disturbances. The uncertainties of the aboveground biomass product32 were adjusted for known regional biases using regional forest biomass plot data sources. With this approach, the original aboveground biomass map bias was partly corrected using a model-based approach deemed to be an alternative to a sample-based approach whenever country data are unavailable37. Our uncertainty analysis and error reduction showed that we expect only minor bias in the forest disturbance and the biomass data and the remaining uncertainties are propagated in our pixel-based uncertainty layer. More

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