Philippa Kaur

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Global statistical analysisOur first attempt to identify plausible effects of meteorological covariates on COVID-19 spread applied a comparative regression analysis. To this end, we focused on the exponential onset of the disease, as it is the epidemic phase that allows for a better comparison between countries or regions, without the confounding effect of intervention policies. We first determined, for each of the spatial units (either countries or NUTS (nomenclature of territorial units for statistics) 2 regions), the day in which 20 or more cumulative cases were officially reported. We then fitted the first-order polynomial function f(t) = x0 + rt for the next 20 days of log-transformed data, where t represents time (in days) and ({{x}_0}) is the value at initial condition t = 0. The r parameter can be understood as the exponential growth rate, and is then used to estimate the basic reproduction number (R0) using the estimated serial interval T for COVID-19 of 4.7 days53, such that R0 = 1 + rT (ref. 54). (We note that we are interested here in the relationship between the reproductive number and not in the actual inference of R0.) Once R0 was obtained for all our spatial units, we filtered our meteorological data to match the same fitting period (with a 10-day negative delay to account for an incubation and reporting lapse) for every spatial unit. To compute a single average of the meteorological variables per regional unit, we computed a weighted average on the basis of the population contribution of each grid cell to the total population of the region. We did so to have an aggregated value that would better represent the impact of these factors on the population transmission of COVID-19, as the same variation in weather in a high-density urban area is more likely to contribute to a change in population-level transmission than that of an unpopulated rural area. We then averaged the daily values of temperature and AH for each country and computed univariate linear models for each of these variables as predictors of R0. Given the somewhat arbitrary criteria to select the dates to estimate the R0 in each country, a sensitivity analysis was run to test the robustness of the regressions to changes in the related parameters. We tested 70 different combinations of two parameters: the total number of days used for the fit (18–27) and the threshold of cumulative COVID-19 cases used to select the initial day of the fit (15–45). We also calculated the weather averages by shifting the selected dates accordingly. Then, a linear model for each of the estimates was fitted for both T and AH. A summary of the distribution of parameter estimates (the regression slope coefficients and the R2 of the models) is shown in Extended Data Fig. 3.Bivariate time-series analysis with scale-dependent correlationsTo examine associations between cases and climate factors in more detail, SDC was performed on the daily time series of both COVID-19 incidence and a given meteorological variable. SDC is an optimal method for identifying dynamical couplings in short and noisy time series20,21. In general, Spearman correlations between incidence and a meteorological time series assess whether there is a monotonic relation between the variables. SDC analysis was specifically developed to study transitory associations that are local in time at a specified temporal scale corresponding to the size of the time intervals considered (s). The two-way implementation (TW-SDC) is a bivariate method that computes non-parametric Spearman rank correlations between two time series, for different pairs of time intervals along these series. Different window sizes (s) can be used to examine increasingly finer temporal resolution. The results are sensitive to the value of this window size, s, with expected significant and highest correlation values at the scale of the transient coupling between variables. Correlation values decrease in magnitude as window size increases, and averages are computed over too long a time interval. Values can also decrease and become non-significant for small windows when correlations are spurious. Here, the method was applied for windows of different length (from s = 75 to 14 days) and, despite a weekly cycle showing up in some cases for small s, results removing this cycle were robust. We therefore did not remove this cycle.The results are typically displayed in a figure with the following subplots: (1) the two time series, to the left and top of the matrix of correlation values, respectively; (2) the matrix or grid of correlation values itself in the center, with significant correlations colored in blue when positive and in red when negative, with rows and columns corresponding to the temporal localization of the moving window along the time series on the left and top, respectively; (3) a time series at the bottom, below this grid, with the highest significant correlations for a given time (vertically, and therefore for the variable that acts as the driver, here the meteorological time series). To read the results, one starts at the diagonal and moves vertically down from it to identify a given lag for which significant correlations are found (the closest to the main diagonal). In some of the SDC figures, the time intervals with high local correlations are highlighted with boxes. These intervals alternate with other ones (left blank) for which no significant correlation is found. All colored areas correspond to significance levels of at least P  fs/fr, where fs is the sampling rate and fr the minimum frequency. Another strategy is that M be large enough that the M-lagged vector incorporates the temporal scale of the time series that is of interest. The larger the M, the more detailed the resulting decomposition of the signal. In particular, the most detailed decomposition is achieved when the embedding dimension is approximately equal to half of the total signal length. A compromise must be reached, however, as a large M implies increased computation, and too large a value may produce mixing of components. SSA is especially well suited for separating components corresponding to different frequencies in nonlinear systems. Here, we applied it to remove the weekly cycle.MSDC analysisMSDC provides a scan of the SDC analyses over a range of different scales (here, S from 5 to 100 days at 5-day intervals), by selecting the maximum correlation values (positive or negative) closer to the diagonal. The goal is to consider the evolution of transient correlations at all scales pooled together in a single analysis. The MSDC plot displays time on the x axis and scale (S) on the y axis, and positive and negative correlations either jointly or separately. The rationale behind MSDC is that correlations at very small scales can occur by chance because of coincident similar patterns, but that as one moves up to larger scales (by increasing S), the correlation patterns that are spurious tend to vanish, whereas those reflecting mechanistic links increase in strength. This increase in correlation values should occur up to the real scale of interaction, decreasing afterwards. By ‘real’, we mean here the temporal scale covering the extent of the interaction between the driver and the response process (in this case, the response of disease transmission to a given climate factor). Thus, continuity of the same sign correlations together with transitions to larger values are indicative of causal effects, whereas the rapid vanishing of small-scale significant correlations signals spurious ones.Process-based modelDescriptionThe dynamical model is a discrete stochastic model that incorporates seven different compartments: S, E, I, C, Q, R and D. The model structure is illustrated in Fig. 4. The transition probabilities of the stochastic model are based on the corresponding rates of the transitions between classes in the deterministic (mean-field) model (specified in Fig. 4b). These probabilities are defined as follows. P(e) = (1.0 − exp(−β dt)) is the probability of infection exposure of the susceptible class, where β = (1/N)(βII + βQQ) is the infection rate (of the deterministic model). P(i) = (1.0 − exp(−γ dt)) is the probability that an new exposed individual becomes infectious, where γ denotes the incubation rate. P(r) = (1.0 − exp(−Λ dt)) is the recovery probability, where λ0(1 − exp(λ1t)) is the (deterministic) recovery rate. P(p) = (1.0 − exp(−α dt)) is the protection probability, where α = α0exp(α1t). P(d) = (1.0 − exp(−K dt)) is the mortality probability, with K = k0exp(k1t). P(re) = (1.0 − exp(−τ dt)) is the release probability from confinement, where τ = τ0exp(τ1t). Finally, P(q) = (1.0 − exp(−δ  dt)) is the detection probability, where δ is the quarantine rate (for example, at which infected individuals are isolated from the rest of the population).In the model, both infected non-detected and infected detected individuals can infect susceptible ones. In the model incorporating temperature in the transmission rate, the respective values of βI and βQ are calculated as follows:$${beta }_{I}(t)={beta }_{I},T_{mathrm{inv}}(t);quad {beta }_{Q}(t)={beta }_{Q},T_{mathrm{inv}}(t)$$where (T_{mathrm{inv}}=fleft(frac{1-T(t)}{bar{T}}right)), with (bar{T}) corresponding to the overall mean of the temperature time series and f(·) to a Savitzky–Golay filter, used to smooth the temperature series with a window size of 50 data points and a polynomial order of 3. When the infection rate is constant, we simply omit the temperature term. For further comparison, in a third model, β is specified with a sinusoidal function of period equal to 12 months and an estimated phase.The number of individuals transitioning from compartment i to j at time t are determined by means of binomial distributions P(Xi,P(y)), where Xi corresponds to one of the compartments S, E, I, Q, R, D, C, and P(y) to the respective transition probability defined above. Thus,

e(t) = P(S(t), P(e)), new exposed individuals at time t

p(t) = P(S(t), P(p)), protected individuals at time t

i(t) = P(E(t), P(i)), new infected not detected individuals at time t

q(t) = P(I(t), P(q)), new infected and detected individuals at time t

r(t) = P(Q(t), P(r)), total recovered individuals at time t

d(t) = P(Q(t), P(d)), total dead individuals at time t

re(t) = P(C(t), P(re)), individuals released from confinement at time t

Then, the final dynamics are given by the following equations:$$S(t)=S(t-{rm{d}}t)-e(t)-p(t)+re(t)$$$$E(t)=E(t-{rm{d}}t)+e(t)-i(t)$$$$I(t)=I(t-{rm{d}}t)+i(t)-q(t)$$$$Q(t)=Q(t-{rm{d}}t)+q(t)-r(t)-d(t)$$$$R(t)=R(t-{rm{d}}t)+r(t)$$$$D(t)=D(t-{rm{d}}t)+d(t)$$$$C(t)=C(t-{rm{d}}t)+p(t)-re(t)$$CalibrationThe model was implemented using Python and calibrated by means of the least squares algorithm of the scipy library. The error function minimized with this algorithm was obtained from the normalized residuals on the basis of total cases (Q + R + D) and deaths (D).To search parameter space, we ran 100 calibrations starting from different initial choices of parameter combinations. The tolerance for termination in the change of the cost function was set to 1 × 10−10. Tolerance for termination by the norm of the gradient was also set to 1 × 10−10, and the tolerance for termination by the change of the independent variables was set to 1 × 10−10. The solver was the lsmr method (which is suitable for problems with sparse and large Jacobian matrices) with a differential step of 1 × 10−5. With this configuration, each fitting run usually converged after ~500 iterations.ValidationTo compare the model including an effect of T in the transmission rate to those without it, we calculated the chi-square, Akaike information criterion (AIC) and Bayesian information criterion (BIC) indices for the residuals obtained from the optimization process. The resulting values are shown in Supplementary Table 1.Our choice of T to modulate the infection rate (β) instead of AH underlies the fact that the temporal dynamics of both factors roughly follow the same shape, with the advantage that T shows less oscillatory behavior than AH. This fact adds stability to the model when the inverse relationship is used in the calculation of β (Supplementary Information). This selection is further reinforced by the results from the SDC analyses, which yielded larger correlations for temperature, even when penalizing for the larger autocorrelation structure.Our choice to modulate β using T instead of AH follows from the fact that the temporal dynamics of both climate variables present roughly the same shape, with the advantage that T exhibits weaker oscillations. This less fluctuating pattern provides stability to the model fitting when the inverse relationship is used in the calculation of β (Supplementary Information). Additionally, the transient correlations obtained with SDC yielded higher values for T than for AH (even when accounting for concurrent levels of autoregression in the two variables). More

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COMMENT
20 October 2021

Congo Basin rainforest — invest US$150 million in science

The world’s second-largest rainforest is key to limiting climate change — it needs urgent study and protection.

Lee J. T. White

0
,

Eve Bazaiba Masudi

1
,

Jules Doret Ndongo

2
,

Rosalie Matondo

3
,

Arlette Soudan-Nonault

4
,

Alfred Ngomanda

5
,

Ifo Suspense Averti

6
,

Corneille E. N. Ewango

7
,

Bonaventure Sonké

8
&

Simon L. Lewis

9

Lee J. T. White

Lee J. T. White is Minister of Water, Forests, Oceans, Environment, Climate Change and Land-use Planning, Gabonese Republic.

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Eve Bazaiba Masudi

Eve Bazaiba Masudi is Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Environment and Sustainable Development, Democratic Republic of the Congo.

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Jules Doret Ndongo

Jules Doret Ndongo is Minister of Forestry and Wildlife, Republic of Cameroon.

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Rosalie Matondo

Rosalie Matondo is Minister of Forest Economy, Republic of the Congo.

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Arlette Soudan-Nonault

Arlette Soudan-Nonault is Minister of Environment, Sustainable Development and the Congo Basin, Republic of the Congo.

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Alfred Ngomanda

Alfred Ngomanda is director of the National Centre for Scientific Research and Technology (CENAREST), Gabonese Republic.

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Ifo Suspense Averti

Ifo Suspense Averti is an associate professor in tropical forest ecology at Marian Ngouabi University, Republic of the Congo.

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Corneille E. N. Ewango

Corneille E. N. Ewango is a professor of tropical forest ecology and management at the University of Kisangani, Democratic Republic of the Congo.

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Bonaventure Sonké

Bonaventure Sonké is a professor of plant systematics and ecology at the University of Yaounde I, Republic of Cameroon.

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Simon L. Lewis

Simon L. Lewis is professor of global change science at University College London and the University of Leeds, UK.

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A warden with an orphaned mountain gorilla in the Virunga National Park sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.Credit: Phil Moore/AFP/Getty

Earth’s second-largest expanse of tropical forest lies in central Africa, in the Congo Basin. The region supports the livelihoods of 80 million people. The rainfall that the forest generates as far away as the Sahel and the Ethiopian highlands supports a further 300 million rural Africans. These forests are crucial to regulating Earth’s climate, and are home to forest elephants, gorillas and humans’ closest relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos.Such services to people and the planet are not guaranteed, given rapid climate change and ongoing development in the region. The forest’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide is slowing as temperatures rise1. Deforestation, although lower than elsewhere in the tropics over recent decades, has led to the loss of more than 500,000 hectares of forest in 2019 alone (see go.nature.com/3dnxm9e). Without new policies, this is expected to increase.Yet, too often, central Africa’s rainforests are ignored or downplayed. The Congo Basin forests receive much less academic and public attention than do those in the Amazon and southeast Asia. Between 2008 and 2017, the Congo Basin received just 11.5% of international financial flows for forest protection and sustainable management in tropical areas, compared with 55% for southeast Asia and 34% for the Amazon region2.The area is neglected even by comparison with the rest of Africa. For example, a key UK-funded programme of climate research, called Future Climate for Africa, invested £20 million (US$27 million) in modelling and four projects focused on eastern, western and southern Africa. None focused on the Congo Basin or central Africa.The result of this neglect is clear in high-level climate assessments. Central Africa was one of only two regions worldwide without enough data for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to assess past trends in extreme heat in its 2021 Working Group I report (the other was the southern tip of South America).
A collaborative look at the Congo Basin
We are a group of ministers who have responsibility for forests in the region, and scientists who work on the ground and advise governments. Together we call for a Congo Basin Climate Science Initiative. This should comprise a $100-million, decade-long programme of research, tied to a separate $50-million fund to train Congo Basin nationals to become PhD-level scientists. Such funding would transform our understanding of these majestic forests, providing crucial input for policymakers to help them enact policies to avoid the region’s looming environmental crises.There is precedent for such a transformation. In the mid-1990s, rainforest science in the Amazon region was limited and was largely conducted by overseas scientists. Formally beginning in 1998 and led by Brazilians, the Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia programme, known as the LBA, was a 10-year, $100-million effort. It revolutionized understanding of the Amazon rainforest and its role in the Earth system.The LBA involved 6 years of intensive measurements and covered climatology, hydrology, ecology and biogeochemistry across an area of 550 million hectares. It comprised 120 projects and 1,700 participants, 990 of whom were Brazilians3. One of its greatest legacies was the creation of a new cadre of Brazilian researchers. Two decades on, Brazil is now widely acknowledged as the world’s leading nation for tropical forest monitoring, and is at the forefront of rainforest science.We should — we must — do the same for central Africa.Known unknownsThe Greater Congo Basin covers some 240 million hectares of contiguous forests, straddling 8 nations (see ‘Earth’s second green lung’). Merely sampling this vast area is daunting. Access often requires days of travel in dugout canoes and long treks through the humid jungle, punctuated by wading through swamps. There is also a pervasive prejudice: too many people think working in the Congo Basin region is perilous, whether the hazards are political instability, unfamiliar diseases or dangerous animals. In reality, for the vast majority of central Africa, the risks are similar to working in the Amazon rainforest or east African savannah ecosystems.

Source: Ref. 1

These various challenges can be surmounted. Papers from the past few years, co-authored by many of us, highlight how important and understudied the region is. In 2017, the world’s largest tropical peatland complex was mapped for the first time — an area spanning 14.6 million hectares in the heart of the Congo basin4. This work radically shifted our understanding of carbon stores in the region. In March 2020, an international consortium showed that Africa’s rainforests annually absorb the same amount of carbon1 as was emitted each year by fossil-fuel use across the entire African continent in the 2010s5.In December 2020, a striking 81% decline in fruit production over 3 decades in an area of forest in Gabon was shown to coincide with climate warming and an 11% decline in the body condition of forest elephants (they rely on fruit for part of their diet)6. And in April, the first region-wide assessment of tree community composition in central Africa was published7, mapping areas that are vulnerable to climate change and human pressures.
Biodiversity needs every tool in the box: use OECMs
Overall, the strikingly recent (although somewhat limited) data suggest that the tropical forests of the Congo Basin are more carbon-dense8, more efficient at slowing climate change1 and more resistant to our changing climate9 than are Amazon tropical forests. But we do not know how increasing droughts, higher temperatures, selective logging and deforestation might interact — including the possibility of reduced rainfall in the Sahel10 and Ethiopian highlands11. Some 2,500 years ago, vast swathes of the Congo Basin forests were lost during a period of climate stress, but researchers do not understand the historic context of that event, nor the likelihood of a repeat12.Little is known about the region because not enough science is done in central Africa. Remarkably, researchers still do not understand the basic principles of why different types of forest occur where they do in the Congo Basin. Climate models for this region are poor, both because of the complex interplay of Atlantic, Indian and Southern ocean influences and because of a lack of local climate data. Without more data and more specialists, it is impossible to make reliable predictions of these forests’ responses to changes in climate and land use.Next stepsInvestment in basic science is urgently needed to fill these gaps. A Congo Basin Climate Science Initiative should focus on three important overarching questions: how does the Congo Basin currently operate as an integrated system? How will changes in land use and climate affect its function? And how sustainable are different options for development?Within these broad topics are more specific questions that politicians will need answers to if nations are to achieve net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050. One such question is how much carbon is stored in vegetation and soils. These and other quantities must be reported as part of countries’ commitments to the 2015 Paris climate agreement. At present, most central African countries rely on default values, which could be way off the mark. A recent paper13 on African montane forests largely near the edges of the basin, for example, showed that measured carbon storage values were 67% higher than the default values.

A child on the Mongala River in the dense forest of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.Credit: Pascal Maitre/Panos

A science initiative will work only if there is enthusiasm and leadership from researchers and active support from key Congo Basin countries, alongside buy-in from funders. We envision three steps to achieve these aims.First, scientists from the Congo region should hold a workshop with the LBA architects and participants to assess lessons from the Amazon region. This south–south cooperation would build a scientist-led framework to address the crucial research questions.Second, a meeting of politicians and advisers from the region would facilitate discussions of the policy-relevant questions that scientists should investigate. This would be led by Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo — the four nations conducting the most research in the region. The meeting will help to lock in political support across ministries responsible for forests, environment, water, climate, science and universities.
Nature-based solutions can help cool the planet — if we act now
Third, partners will need to develop an overarching science programme that is acceptable to funders. Such a programme will probably include scaling up many efforts that are already under way, but which are currently insufficient in scope or unreliably funded. This would speed up scientific progress.For example, a handful of established, long-term field sites already exist in the Greater Congo Basin, including in Lopé National Park in Gabon and in the Yangambi Biosphere Reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. These ‘supersites’ are sophisticated field stations with full-time staff who collect reliable, long-term data sets on vegetation, animals and the physical environment, including greenhouse-gas fluxes at Yangambi. But the sites are too few in number, and they rely on the heroic efforts of local champions. There should be a dozen or so locations across the region, with consistent funding to support complex research projects.Similarly, the African Tropical Rainforest Observation Network (AfriTRON), established in 2009, tracks every tree in permanent sample plots to estimate the carbon balance of undisturbed forests. Although this observatory has ramped up from its original 40 sites in central Africa to more than 200 today, these cover just 250 hectares of the roughly 240-million-hectare total. That is very sparse sampling from which to draw regional conclusions.Meanwhile, the Forest Global Earth Observatory (ForestGEO), established in 1990 to understand how tropical forests maintain such a diverse number of tree species, has established just 4 sites in central Africa in 30 years, with none in the centre of the basin. There is an obvious need for expansion.

African forest elephants in Ivindo National Park, Gabon.Credit: Amaury Hauchard/AFP/Getty

Finally, the 2016 AfriSAR airborne field campaign, a collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency and the Gabonese Agency for Space Studies and Observation, showed how to combine different data sets to carefully map forest types and their carbon stocks in Lopé National Park in Gabon. This model could be replicated elsewhere in the basin.All of this work will require linking theory, observations, experiments and modelling. It should attract a diversity of leading international experts to focus on Africa and provide training to Congo Basin nationals. A $100-million research programme would provide new opportunities and much-needed career options for African scientists. The tied investment of $50 million, focused on building talent, could produce approximately 200 PhDs awarded by leading universities worldwide. This would create a new generation of scientists, including future leaders, from central Africa. The training programme would ensure the necessary step-change in science capacity, and provide opportunities for young African researchers who currently find it hard to compete for international scholarships, which are often won by students from Asia or South America.Agreeing on open access for all the data collected, as in the LBA programme, will significantly boost the initiative’s science impact.Money well spentThis $150-million science programme over 10 years needs investors. One option would be to combine funds from governments that have made large forest- and science-related investments in the Congo Basin in the past, notably Belgium, France, Germany, Norway, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union. Alternatives include United Nations agencies, international climate funds and private philanthropy organizations. Such a programme should be high on funders’ agendas, given the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These include raising capacity for effective climate-change-related planning and management (SDG13), increasing financial resources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems (SDG15), boosting the number of researchers in lower-income countries, and increasing research and development (R&D) funding (SDG9), all before 2030.Global R&D funding was $2.2 trillion in 201914. Thus, investing $150 million over a decade to better understand and protect the world’s second-largest extent of tropical forest is modest. To put this sum in context, the US government’s total projected cost for the Human Genome Project was $2.7 billion, and the European Space Agency spends approximately $500 million on its larger, long-lasting scientific satellites. The $100 million that the LBA brought to the Amazon in the 1990s is equivalent to about $160 million in today’s terms.
Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya face devastating drought
The investment in science will pay for itself many times over. Consider just the role of forests as reservoirs of zoonotic diseases. Better forest management lowers the risk of disease outbreaks, let alone a pandemic15.Critics might argue that direct interventions in development aid are more urgent than investing in climate and ecological science. However, these funds are usually independent and do not compete. Furthermore, the old division between ending poverty and protecting the environment no longer applies: Africans will suffer disproportionately if temperatures are not limited as per the Paris agreement. That must include protection of the forests of the Congo Basin.Further efforts could help to support the goals of the Congo Basin science programme. For example, there is a lack of economic models that show how standing forests can become more valuable than converted landscapes. Developing these would support policy decisions to maintain forest cover.There are also several efforts under way to improve forest management that aim to empower local people, increase income and protect the environment. These include the transfer of land-management decisions to local populations, such as through community forestry, and creating high-value end products from selective logging rather than relying on the export of raw, unprocessed timber. A new science initiative could assess various approaches to understand what works best.We know so little about the majestic forests of central Africa. A Congo Basin Climate Science Initiative would curb our collective ignorance. A lack of investment is the barrier to safeguarding these precious ecosystems. Surmount this, and the future of Earth’s second ‘great green lung’ will be brighter.

Nature 598, 411-414 (2021)
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02818-7

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Competing Interests
L.J.T.W. (Gabon), E.B.M. (Democratic Republic of the Congo), J.D.N. (Cameroon), R.M. (Republic of the Congo) and A.S-N. (Republic of the Congo) are ministers of forests and/or the environment. Their countries stand to benefit if international donors take on board the recommendations in this Comment article.

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