Fire-induced rock spalling as a mechanism of weathering responsible for flared slope and inselberg development
Establishing the variables involved in rock weathering and fire behaviour is a key aspect of developing an accurate fire-induced rock spalling hypothesis. We expand on these variables by drawing on field observations and existing findings outlined below.Mechanical weatheringThe physical breakup and removal of rocks of varying hardness and degrees of weathering via mechanical weathering is the primary process that denudes and sculpts uplifted regions of Earth’s surface. Sub-critical cracking describes the slow propagation of microfractures through a rock in low-stress, near-surface conditions as a result of thermal stress, ice wedging, mineral alteration (volumetric expansion) and biomechanical processes such as root growth25. Sheeting is characterised by thick (0.1–1 m) layers of rock peeling off exposed surfaces roughly parallel to the surface topography. There is debate as to whether sheeting is related to gradual unloading and release of stresses near the surface or a combination of other stresses26,27. The physical process of thermal expansion and contraction of rocks over thousands of years is responsible for the thinner, gradual flaking (exfoliation) of rock surfaces, which can be observed all over the surface of inselbergs in central Australia5 and presumably the main process responsible for the slow rates of erosion at the tops of inselbergs14.Fracture propagation is facilitated by the presence of water28, which helps to break chemical bonds leading to more fractured rock at shallow, superficial levels of the crust. Thus, rocks are generally more fractured in the superficial, near-surface environments than at deeper levels. Spontaneous rock-burst events were captured on video during a hot summer of 2014 in California when a granite dome at Twain Harte began explosively exfoliating29. Extreme thermal stresses associated with fire and lightning strikes are acknowledged as mechanisms of critical stress fracturing in rocks but generally considered to be a rare form of rapid and catastrophic mechanical weathering25. Our observations of rock surfaces following wildfires are that fire-related rock spalling is a commonly observed phenomenon wherever high-intensity fire has swept across rocky outcrops (for example, Figs. 5 and 6). We suggest that fire-spalling is a significant driving mechanism of physical weathering in arid, fire-prone environments and has been overlooked as an important agent of geomorphic change and landscape evolution.Fig. 6: Existing and new models of flared slope development using Uluru as an example and a graphical representation of the formula for erosion due to fire-spalling in different fire regimes.a The model of Twidale and Bourne 199822 involving subsurface weathering via shallow groundwaters to form soft regolith or unconsolidated soil that is subsequently removed by erosion and landscape lowering; b a new model of flared slope development via fire-induced rock spalling associated with episodic wildfire events. Note the charcoal on the recently burnt trees is the same height as the flared slope; c inverse correlation relationship between rates of erosion E(t) plotted against fire recurrence interval (t) using the formula E = W.A/t (see https://www.geogebra.org/calculator/uwa68amr). Rock-type and fire temperatures tend to control the thickness of spalled sheets (W) whilst fire intensity and duration are the main controls on the surface area spalled (0–100%). The inverse correlation of rates of fire-spalling erosion with average recurrence intervals (t) results in an increasing rate of weathering with smaller average fire recurrence intervals. Fire recurrence intervals are largely controlled by climatic and vegetation regimes and examples from Figs. 2 and 4 are shown and plotted on the graph according to the fire recurrence interval for that region.Full size imageWildfire temperaturesA detailed study of high-intensity wildfires in eucalypt forests of SW Australia30 revealed that these fires burn at temperatures between 300 °C at the tips of visible flames and up to a maximum of 1100 °C near the flame base, while temperatures of up to 1330 °C were recorded in Canadian crown fires31. Experimental fires conducted in jarrah forests of south-west Western Australia (Project VESTA) reveal that temperature correlates directly with the rate of spread, fire intensity, flame height and surface fuel bulk density30. This single case study measured the average flame-front residence time in eucalypt forest fuels of about 37 s. However, radiant heat and hot winds fanning out in front of the fire have the ability to pre-heat the rock surface and vegetation before and after the arrival of the fire front31 particularly along cliff lines.We report the first documented case of spalling in basalt from Mount Kaputar in northern N.S.W. (Fig. 4d). Basalt is a high-temperature volcanic rock with no quartz content. Fire-spalling was minimal across most of the outcrops and generally consisted of dislodged pyroxene phenocrysts. However, a few basalt outcrops adjacent to nearby fallen burnt logs were intensely scorched and displayed thin (1–4 mm) spalled flakes of basalt indicating that fire-spalling is not restricted entirely to quartz-rich lithologies. In mature eucalypt forests with large, woody fuels, termed ‘down wood’32, fires can burn or smoulder for days, providing prolonged heat required for extensive spalling. Some cliff faces record distinct ghosted impressions of nearby tree trunks with the resultant spalling hollowing out the line and shape of a tree trunk in an otherwise flat, vertical rockface (Fig. 5a—right-hand side). A discarded brown glass bottle adjacent to the basalt spalling had softened and undergone ductile collapse and partially melted. The glass had cooled slowly enough to avoid shattering indicating prolonged heating from the smouldering downward. This glass was collected and placed in a high-temperature oven where it was observed to become soft and malleable at 750 °C and completely collapsed and started melting at 830 °C indicating that this fire sustained ground surface temperatures of between 750 and 830 °C next to the smouldering tree and fallen logs.Fire-induced rock spallingFire is known to accelerate the rock flaking process25,33,34,35,36,37,38 resulting in rock spalling36,39 and shattering38. Conflagration leads to the rapid disintegration of the rock surface due to the differential expansion of the hot rock surface compared with the cooler interior. Fire-spalling can remove between 10 and 100% of the burnt rock surface in sheets between 5 and 50 mm thick37 depending upon rock type and fire intensity. Detailed measurements of post-fire rock spalling after the Esperanza chaparral fire in California revealed that 7–55% of the granodiorite boulder surfaces were spalled to a depth of 11–24 mm33. They found that the thickest spalled sheets occurred around the flanks of the boulders and cautioned that, if sampled for cosmogenic dating, these freshly exposed, spalled surfaces would produce a significant underestimate of exposure age. These figures match our own observations of spalled granite following the fires in Cobargo, Moonbi and Thredbo N.S.W. (Fig. 4) in which granite boulders spalled sheets between 5 and 50 mm thick, while sandstones from the Blue Mountains spalled sheets between 5 and 22 mm thick (Fig. 5).Quartz expands four times more than feldspar and twice as much as hornblende and shows a 3.76% volume expansion when heated from room temperature to 570 °C40. Thus, quartz-rich rocks have a greater expansion potential and are more likely to spall. Experimental studies41 show that rock elasticity reduces significantly at temperatures as low as 200 °C, over a relatively short period of time. Goudie et al.41 postulated that rock outcrops subject to intense fires would have an increased susceptibility to erosion via spalling and weathering. However, these findings have not been applied to broader landscape models or the formation of flared slopes around inselbergs.Fire regimesThe potential rate of erosion due to fire-spalling at the base of inselbergs will be strongly influenced by fire severity and recurrence intervals, which vary greatly across Australia from 1- to 5-year recurrence intervals and 100-year intervals and >10,000 kW m−1 for tall, open forests of the cool, temperate south42. Accurately calculating the fire return period is difficult due to limited historical records but estimates for arid, spinifex-dominated regions such as the Tanami are in the order of every 7–9 years43. Analyses of satellite data between 1998 and 2004 revealed that 27% of arid Australia burnt at least once over that 6-year period44. Figure 1a shows the areas burnt in Australia since 2001. The surface area of the rock affected by spalling depends on the rock-type and severity of the fire. Fire severity is strongly determined by the bulk density45, height and proximity of the adjacent vegetation to rock surfaces and the surrounding slope gradient. All the examples of flared slopes shown in Figs. 1 and 2 reveal a close relationship between the height of the encroaching vegetation and the height of the concavity. Katter Kich, Pildappa Rock and Walga Rock form distinct embayments where the flared slopes are most pronounced, which appear to promote denser, taller vegetation growth and hence greater fuel loading and thus higher fire severity (Fig. 3).The impermeable nature of inselbergs results in rapid and efficient water runoff from the bare-rock surface before draining into adjacent, thin soil profiles. This creates a “roof and gutter” effect around the periphery of many inselbergs which creates permanent water holes and shallow groundwater within easy reach of deep-rooted plants. Inselbergs create important geodiversity within otherwise flat landscapes and thus host important niche ecosystems that add to the overall biodiversity of desert regions46. Accessible groundwater around the fringes of the inselbergs encourages denser, taller vegetation at the interface between bare rock and unconsolidated surficial sediments which in turn increases the fuel load. Inselbergs are prominent topographic features in flat deserts that provide sources of permanent water, abundant flora and fauna and shelter.Grassy plains and savannahs of central Australia are characterised by regular, low-intensity fires with fire recurrence intervals between 1 and 5 years42. However, where these fires encounter inselbergs they move into thicker, taller vegetation regimes with greater fuel loads (Figs. 2 and 3). Inselbergs are topographic highs within relatively flat landscapes and the slight increase in slope gradient around the inselberg will accelerate and intensify an approaching fire front. Steep slopes around the margins of inselbergs possibly act as chimneys, drawing in hot air from the surrounding plains and channelling them upwards. These factors possibly help to draw in fires from the surrounding plains into and around topographically high inselbergs where the intensity is enhanced at the base of inselbergs due to the denser vegetation and greater fuel load.A fire-induced spalling weathering formulaFire-spalling leads to physical weathering (erosion) and disintegration of exposed rock faces36,37 as shown in Figs. 3–5. The degree and extent of spalling on different rock types and at varying temperatures and durations is less well understood and requires further experimental work41 but essentially fire-spalling is a function of fire intensity (temperature), duration and rock type with quartz-rich rocks having a greater propensity to expand and spall40.We developed a simple fire-spalling erosion formula to estimate a long-term rate of fire-induced spalling that broadly considers the net result of fire-spalling in terms of the thickness (width) of the spalled flakes produced by a single fire event, the total surface area as a percentage of the exposed rock face affected by a single fire-spalling event, and the average fire recurrence interval for a given region. Together these variables can give some indication as to the long-term rates of erosion due to fire-spalling at the base of an inselberg or cliff face where there is significant vegetation to fuel a wildfire.The formula for erosion due to fire-spalling.$$E = frac{{W times A}}{t}$$
(1)
where, E = rate of erosion due to fire-spalling (mm yr−1), W = average width (thickness) of spalled sheets (mm) for a single fire event. Dependent on rock type (quartz content and texture), rock strength, fire temperature and duration, A = area of rock surface affected by fire-spalling as a percentage (%) of total surface area. Dependent on temperature and duration of the fire, t = average fire recurrence interval (years). Determined from regional, historic fire records or palaeofire records for longer time periods. Dependent on vegetation, climatic regimes and land management practices.Limitations: this equation applies to a near-vertical rock face at ground level which receives uniform heat radiation from a fire that burns right up to the rock face at ground level. The intensity of radiation will vary according to the dynamics of the fire front, fuel loading, vegetation type and slope gradient. Flame height is not critical to the overall rate of retreat of the cliff face because fire-spalling at the base of the cliff will gradually remove material supporting the cliff resulting in over-steepening at the base of the cliff and periodic sheeting and rockfalls as the overhanging cliff face becomes gravitationally unstable. The formula assumes that fire recurrence intervals have remained constant but we know from palaeofire records47,48 that fire intensity and recurrence intervals are largely controlled by long-term climatic variations which affect vegetation types and thus fuel loads. Below, we give two end-member examples of long-term rates of spalling-related erosion for low and high-frequency fire regimes that may apply to temperate and arid environments, respectively.Example 1. Low intensity, irregular fire regime. In this scenario, the average fire against a cliff results in spalling and flaking of ~10 mm sheets off ~20% of the surface area at ground level during a single fire event. Fire recurrence interval is one event every 50 years.$$E = frac{{W times A}}{t} = frac{{10;{mathrm{mm}} times 0.2}}{{50}} = 0.04;{rm{mm}};{rm{yr}}^{ – 1} = 40;{rm{m}};{rm{Ma}}^{ – 1}$$Example 2. High intensity, high-frequency fire regime. In this scenario, the average fire against a cliff results in spalling and flaking of ~20 mm sheets (Fig. 5) off ~80% of the surface area at ground level. Fire recurrence interval is one event every 5 years.$$E = frac{{W times A}}{t} = frac{{20;{mathrm{mm}} times 0.8}}{5} = 3.2;{rm{mm}};{rm{yr}}^{ – 1} = 3200;{rm{m}};{rm{Ma}}^{ – 1}$$In an intensely fire-prone environment such as example 2 above, it may only take about 625 years of fire-induced spalling to weather out a 2 m deep flared slope at the base of a vertical rock face. The point at which undercutting due to fire-spalling would trigger massive sheeting of the unsupported, overhanging rock ledge and subsequent rockfall event is not well constrained but some of the flared slopes around Uluru and Walga Rock are at least 2–3 m deep (Fig. 2h).Sediment production ratesIf rates of erosion due to fire-spalling around the periphery of an inselberg are orders of magnitude greater than those across the top of the inselberg, then this has implications for mechanisms of sediment production in flat, arid environments like Central Australia.Spalling of a 20 mm sheet from a 1 m2 area of granite with a density of 2691 kg m−3 will yield 0.02 m3 (53.82 kg) of rock. A flared slope around an inselberg such as Uluru with a circumference of ~10,000 m and a height of 2 m, would produce 400 m3 (1,076,400 kg) in a single event in which 100% of the 2 m high flared slope was spalled. Obviously, 100% spalling of the entire flared slope would never occur in a single event, so we use the long-term erosion rate based on fire recurrence intervals and average area spalled calculated in Eq. 1. This long-term estimate of sediment production from a single inselberg is compared with quantitative measurements of spalled granite surfaces sampled after the 2019–2020 fires in Cobargo on the south coast of N.S.W., Australia.The formula for sediment production.$$S_{rm{FS}} = P.H.E$$where, SFS = sediment production from fire-spalled rock surface (cubic metres per year), P = perimeter of the inselberg (metres), H = height of the flared slope around the inselberg as determined by vegetation and fire height, E = rate of erosion due to fire-spalling (Eq. 1).Fire-spalling sediment production around the periphery of an inselberg such as Uluru with a perimeter of roughly 10,000 m and flared slope height of 2 m, would be$$S_{mathrm{FS}}=10,000, {mathrm{m}}times 2, {mathrm{m}} times 0.0032, {mathrm{m}}, {mathrm{yr}}^{-1}=64, {mathrm{m}}^{3}, {mathrm{yr}}^{-1}=172,224, {mathrm{kg}}, {mathrm{yr}}^{-1}$$This can be standardised to give a volume of rock spalled per year per square metre, which is the same as the erosion rate but in cubic metres per year. Given the density of the rock (granite = 2691 kg m−3 and compacted, meta-arkose sandstone (Uluru) are about the same) we can calculate the average mass of rock spalled each year. In the above scenario, it equals 8.61 kg per square metre per year.The rate of background (non-fire related) sediment production (SBA) from erosion of the surface area of an inselberg such as Uluru is equivalent to the surface area (~3,440,000 m2) multiplied by the average denudation rate of ~0.3–0.6 m/Ma (0.0003 mm yr−1) as established from cosmogenic studies.$$S_{mathrm{BA}}=3,440,000, {mathrm{m}}^{2}times 0.0000003, {mathrm{m}}, {mathrm{yr}}^{-1} =, sim! 1, {mathrm{m}}^{3}, {mathrm{yr}}^{-1}=2691, {mathrm{kg}}, {mathrm{yr}}^{-1}$$This equates to only 0.00081 kg per square metre per year. We estimate that fire-spalling on a 2 m high perimeter produces in the order of 64 times more sediment than the erosion of the entire surface of the inselberg due to background (non-fire related) processes.Spalled granite material was collected from two locations following the 2019–2020 fires in the Cobargo region along the south coast of N.S.W. (Fig. 4) to assist in quantifying the amount of rock spalled from a single rock face. Spalled surface area can be estimated simply by measuring the maximum height and width of the spalled surface in the field. We also created a digital surface using photogrammetry MetaShapePro software to calculate a precise surface area of the spalled surface. All of the spalled material was weighed and a standard granite density of 2691 kg m−3 was used to determine total volume. Generally spalling occurs as thin (1–3 cm) sheets but occasionally includes large 20–30 cm thick slabs that substantially add to the overall weight of spalled material. Whilst complete spalling of a 2 cm sheet from one square metre of granite surface will produce 53.82 kg m−2 of rock, our two sites (Cobargo2 and 3A) produced 23.65 kg total (16.89 kg m−2) and 41.60 kg m−2 total (33.55 kg m−2), respectively, indicating an average spalling thickness of 0.63–1.25 cm although the spalled thickness was highly variable with spalling distinctly more prominent along sharp or protruding edges than on flat surfaces. Large logs or tree trunks have the potential to continue burning long after the fire front moves through and their presence near rock surfaces significantly increases the degree of spalling. The most intense spalling was observed at Moonbi Granite near Tamworth in northern N.S.W. where some granite boulders had 100% surface spalling up to 2 m above ground level and not one but several spalled sheets (5–20 cm total thickness) exfoliating off during a single, intense fire creating several hundred kilograms of spalled rock debris on the granite surface facing the fire front (Fig. 4). Likewise, lichen coated granites from Australia’s most elevated alpine regions in the Snowy Mountains (Thredbo) displayed intense spalling but were covered in snow six months later. The fire recurrence interval for these alpine regions is probably in the order of one every 20–100 years thus the effects of fire-spalling are less pronounced than in arid regions and less evident than other forms of fluvial or chemical weathering that dominate in wetter climates. However, the abundant spalled surfaces shown in Fig. 4 reveal that large, intense fires such as the Black Summer fires of 2019–2020 will result in significant erosion and sediment production even in alpine environments. More
