Short-term sedimentation dynamics in mesotidal marshes
No plants were collected or harmed during this study, and all research involving plants followed relevant national, and international guidelines and legislation.Study areaThe study site encloses a wetland area bordering Ramalhete Channel, in the western part of the Ria Formosa lagoon, a mesotidal system located in southern Portugal (Fig. 1). Lunar tides are semi-diurnal, with a mean tidal range of about 2 m that can reach up to 3.5 m during spring tides. Offshore waves have no major propagation inside the lagoon33,34. Water circulation inside the lagoon is mostly driven by tides. The lagoon extends over 55 km along the coast and is connected to the ocean through six tidal inlets35. The three westmost inlets of the system (Ancão, Faro-Olhão, and Armona), which together capture ca. 90% of the total prism, are highly interconnected, with a strong residual circulation from Faro-Olhão Inlet directed towards Ancão and Armona inlets (located in Fig. 1), during both spring and neap tides36. The tidal currents in Ramalhete Channel, connecting the Faro-Olhão and Ancão Inlet, have high tidal asymmetry and shifts in tidal dominance, from flood to ebb. There are no significant fluvial inputs into the lagoon, with a yearly average terrestrial sediment influx of around 2 × 105 m3/yr37, reaching the system through small streams. The main sediment delivery to the system is through the inlets, though there are few studies assessing related fluxes. The net sediment entry through the stabilized Faro-Olhão Inlet is estimated at 1.4 × 105 m3/year38. Recent sedimentation rates in the marsh of the westmost edge of the lagoon were estimated at 1.1 ± 0.1 mm/yr39.The lagoon system is composed of large salt marsh patches, tidal flats and a complex net of natural, and partially dredged tidal channels. The tidal flats (vegetated and non-vegetated) and salt marshes represent more than 2/3 of the total lagoon area. The salt marshes comprise silt and fine sand40, while coarser (sand to shingle) shell-rich sediment, of marine provenance, is found on tidal channels and the lower domain of intertidal flats41. The dominant intertidal species are Spartina maritima and the seagrass Zostera noltei, the latter occupying an estimated area of 1304 ha, which represent 45% of the total intertidal area42.Figure 1Location of the field site in the Ria Formosa lagoon western sector over a satellite image collected in 2019 (South Portugal; upper panel); zoom to monitoring stations S1 to S4 (left lower panel); and field view of the studied site (right lower panel). Map generated with ArcGIS 10.8 (http://www.esri.com) and Adobe Illustrator 2022. Map data: Google Earth 7.3, image Landsat / Copernicus.Full size imageExperimental setup and data analysisAn experimental setup was deployed in the study area to assess dominant local topography, hydrodynamics (water levels and current velocities), Suspended Sediment Concentrations (SSCs), Deposition Rates (DRs), vegetation characteristics, and bed sediment grain size and organic matter content. Measurements were made during a full tide cycle, on a spring tide (tidal range = 3.2 m), and on a neap tide (tidal range = 1.8 m). Sampling was conducted in four wetland stations: S1 and S2 in a vegetated tidal flat comprising Zostera noltei; S3 in the low marsh comprising Spartina maritima; and S4 in the mid-upper marsh with the most abundant species of Sarcocornia perennis and Atriplex portucaloides (see S1 to S4, Fig. 1); the tidal flat is interrupted by a small oblique secondary tidal creek that flows near S2 station.Stations of sediment sampling and equipment deployment along the transect are illustrated in Fig. 2. During neap tide there was no data collection in S4, since the inundation time of the station was very short. The profile elevation was measured using Real Time Kinematic Differential Global Positioning System (RTK-DGPS, Trimble R6; vertical error in the order of few centimetres), and the slope of each habitat within a transect was calculated and expressed in percentage (%). Vegetation at each point was characterized by the canopy height, calculated as the average shoot length.Suspended Sediment Samplers (SSSs) were installed during low tide in the monitored stations using siphon samplers (Fig. 2) and recovered in the next low tide. These samplers consist of 0.5 L bottles with two holes on the cap, one for water intake and the other for air exhaust, according to the method described in13. Each intake tube is adjusted to form a siphon (i.e., inverse U), allowing to control the water level at which intake starts. Siphons were aligned at the same elevation along the transect for spring and neap tides, which means that all SSSs were collecting at the same time within the tidal cycle. During spring tide, in S1 and S2 at the tidal flat, SSSs were sampling at 0.1, 0.9, and 1.2 m from the bed, while at S3 SSSs were sampling at 0.7 and 1.0 m from the bed, and at S4 the SSS was sampling at 0.1 m from the bed (Fig. 2). During neap tide, in S1 and S2, SSSs were sampling at 0.1 and 0.9 m from the bed, while at S3 the SSS was sampling at 0.7 m from the bed.Surficial sediment samples were collected in each habitat to characterize the sediment grain size (d50) and content of organic matter (% OM). Sediment traps were installed in 3 replicates, during low tide, at each sampling point to measure the short-term sediment deposition rate (i.e., deposition over a tidal cycle, following procedures of43). Traps consisted of 3 cm diameter pre-labeled cylindrical tubes (Falcon® tubes, 50 ml). Traps and sediment samples were transported to the laboratory and maintained in a fridge. The sediment content was washed, and both the inorganic and organic weights were determined.The measured inorganic DR (g/m2/hr) was calculated as:$${text{DR}} = {raise0.7exhbox{${{text{W}}_{{{text{DS}}}} }$} !mathord{left/ {vphantom {{{text{W}}_{{{text{DS}}}} } {{text{A}} cdot {text{T}}}}}right.kern-0pt} !lower0.7exhbox{${{text{A}} cdot {text{T}}}$}}$$
(1)
where WDS is the weight of deposited sediment (in grams), A is the area of the sediment trap opening (m2), and T is in hours. Two different tide durations were considered to compute DRs, one assuming T equal to the hydroperiod in each station, and one assuming T equal to the entire tide duration (~ 12.4 h). These measured DRs are hereon mentioned as flood and tide DRs (DRflood and DRtide, respectively). The former is an expression of the actual deposition rate within the flood phase, during the period in which each station is inundated (and therefore active deposition can take place). The latter is the value used to compare with DRs in literature, which typically corresponds to values averaged over multiple tidal cycles (thus accounting for the entire tide duration).Tide levels were measured in the field using pressure sensors (PT, InSitu Inc. Level TROLL; ~ 2 cm from the bed), deployed from S2 towards S4 (Fig. 2). Velocity currents were measured at 20 cm from the bed, using an electromagnetic current meter (EMCM; Infinity Series JFE Advantech Co., Ltd; in S2 to S4; Fig. 2), and raw data (recording interval: 30 s) were filtered using a 10 min moving average for cross-shore and longshore components. To identify tidal asymmetry and assess the related phase dominance, tidal current skewness was calculated through the formula described in44 by which:
$$Sk_{U} = frac{{frac{1}{N – 1}mathop sum nolimits_{t = 1}^{N} left( {U_{t} – overline{U}} right)^{3} }}{{left( {frac{1}{N – 1}mathop sum nolimits_{t = 1}^{N} left( {U_{t} – overline{U}} right)^{2} } right)^{{{raise0.7exhbox{$3$} !mathord{left/ {vphantom {3 2}}right.kern-0pt} !lower0.7exhbox{$2$}}}} }}$$
(2)
where N is the number of recordings, Ut is the input velocity signal and (overline{U}) is the mean velocity. Positive/negative skewness indicates flood/ebb dominance (assuming that flood currents are positive).Figure 2Deployment of the sediment traps, SSSs and devices (electromagnetic current meter EMCM; pressure transducer PT) in the stations (S1 to S4) during spring tide (sketch is exaggerated in the vertical).Full size imageComplementary to the measured DRs, theoretical DRs were also determined from the data, allowing us to link the sediment and flow data collected, and validate the deposition patterns from the traps. The theoretical deposition rate was determined based on45 formula:$${text{DR}} = left{ {begin{array}{*{20}c} {{text{C}}_{{text{b}}} cdot {text{w}}_{{text{s}}} cdot left( {1 – frac{{{uptau }_{{text{b}}} }}{{{uptau }_{{{text{cd}}}} }}} right)} & {{uptau }_{{text{b}}} < {uptau }_{{{text{cd}}}} } \ 0 & {{uptau }_{{text{b}}} ge {uptau }_{{{text{cd}}}} } \ end{array} } right.$$
(3)
where Cb is the SSC at the bed, ws is the flock settling velocity, τb is the bed shear stress and τcd is the corresponding critical value for deposition.To determine the settling rate of the flocculates, the modified Stokes’ velocity for cohesive sediment was used, taking shape factors α and β (α = β = 1 for perfectly spherical particles):$${text{w}}_{{text{s}}} = frac{{upalpha }}{{upbeta }} cdot frac{{left( {{uprho }_{{text{s}}} - {uprho }_{{text{w}}} } right) cdot {text{g}} cdot {text{D}}_{50}^{2} }}{{{uprho }_{{text{w}}} cdot 18 cdot {upnu }}}$$
(4)
where ρw and ρs are the densities of the water and sediment, respectively and ν is the kinematic viscosity of water (~ 106 m2/s).The bed shear stress τb was calculated from the measured current magnitude, |U| using the law of the wall:$$begin{array}{*{20}c} \ {{uptau }_{{text{b}}} = {uprho }_{{text{w}}} cdot {text{u}}_{*}^{2} , {text{u}}_{*} = frac{left| U right| cdot kappa }{{ln left( {{raise0.7exhbox{$z$} !mathord{left/ {vphantom {z {z_{0} }}}right.kern-0pt} !lower0.7exhbox{${z_{0} }$}}} right)}} } \ end{array} { }$$
(5)
where κ is the von Kármán constant (~ 0.4) and z0 is the roughness length. For Zostera noltei, the roughness length was estimated at 5 mm46, value that was also used in the other stations, in lack of related estimate for marsh plants.The critical shear for deposition, τcd, was calculated using the formula47:$$sqrt {frac{{{uptau }_{{{text{cd}}}} }}{{{uprho }_{{text{w}}} }}} = left{ {begin{array}{*{20}c} {0.008} & {{text{w}}_{{text{s}}} le 5 cdot 10^{ - 5} {text{m}}/{text{s}}} \ {0.094 + 0.02 cdot {text{log}}_{10} left( {{text{w}}_{{text{s}}} } right)} & {3 cdot 10^{ - 4} le {text{w}}_{{text{s}}} le 5 cdot 10^{ - 5} {text{m}}/{text{s}}} \ {0.023} & {{text{w}}_{{text{s}}} ge 3 cdot 10^{ - 4} {text{m}}/{text{s}}} \ end{array} } right.$$
(6)
Theoretical values of minimum SSCs needed for these DRs were also calculated, assuming that there is constant deposition (i.e., setting τb = 0), and compared with the field results. More
