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Literature search and screeningOur analysis included a systematic literature search and was conducted by following the PRISMA protocol55 (Supplementary Fig. 7). We searched through Web of Science and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) platforms by using keywords listed in Supplementary Table 3. A total of 3299 potentially relevant articles were found (Mandarin and English). The availability of peer-reviewed datasets associated with these published articles11,15,56,57,58,59 and online databases (The Sustainable Wetlands Adaptation and Mitigation Program (SWAMP) database, https://www2.cifor.org/swamp) were also considered. We then removed a significant number of articles through title screening, leaving 551 articles for further inspection.For these remaining articles, we used a four-step critique process to screen their title, abstract, and full text. We determined that firstly, they must provide carbon density data for at least one of the four mangrove carbon pools (i.e., aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, sediment organic carbon, or total ecosystem carbon). Secondly, articles needed to state the forest age or the starting date of the restoration action. For those studies providing only age intervals (e.g., 10–25 years, >66 years), we excluded them from the analysis. Thirdly, a description of prior land use was required. From these, mangrove restoration could be divided into two categories—reforestation and afforestation—on whether mangroves previously existed in that location. For reforestation, the initial conditions for inclusion were: (1) abandoned agricultural/aquacultural sites built previously by excavating mangrove forests, (2) clear-felled mangrove lands after wars, timber harvest, and silvicultural management, and (3) mangrove forests with mortality due to spraying of defoliants and hydrological alteration caused by the construction of embankments. We compared the carbon densities of reforested mangroves among sites with different causes of degradation/deforestation, and no significant difference is found (Supplementary Fig. 9). For those reforested mangroves, we assumed they would be protected and conserved by local governments and non-government organizations, so that there will not be human-driven degradation or deforestation in the near future. However, we acknowledge that a fraction of mangrove reforestation is managed for wood production, which means logging would happen at a certain interval after reforestation at these sites. For these logging sites, we used their reported measurements after clear-cut, such as 0-, 5-, 10-, 15-, and 25-year post-harvest sites in Sundarbans, Bangladesh60. On the other hand, the future occurrence of natural-driven deforestation (e.g., cyclones) is difficult to predict, and thus not considered in our study. For afforestation, the initial condition for inclusion was the presence of non-mangrove habitat immediately before afforestation began, such as mudflats, seagrass, saltmarsh, coral reef, or denuded areas. In most cases, reforestation and afforestation were undertaken through active planting without much re-engineering4, but for reforestation, natural regeneration could have, and in many places likely did, augment recruitment61. Moreover, we only considered mangrove succession that started from near-barren land with an insignificant amount of biomass, and introductions of exotic species to degraded areas with sparse trees were not incorporated. Lastly, if the forest age or prior land use type was not given, the articles needed to specify the location of sampling plots (latitude, longitude). With the coordinates matching, prior land use type and establishment dates were sometimes identifiable through remote sensing (Supplementary Fig. 10). For those articles sharing the same restoration sites but showing different aspects of the data collection, we combined the results and considered the collective work as one source. Based on the space-for-time method, data in the control sites before mangrove restoration actions were also collected as a paired site of restoration (e.g., abandoned ponds before mangrove reforestation; mudflats before mangrove afforestation). In total, we obtained data from 379 mangrove restoration sites described by 106 articles.Data extractionWe extracted aboveground living biomass carbon (AGC), belowground living biomass carbon (BGC), sediment carbon (SCS), and total ecosystem carbon (TECS) density from the 106 original data sources. In most cases, numeric values were provided. For those data not provided numerically but graphed, we determined values from figures with the application of GetData Graph Digitizer (http://getdata-graph-digitizer.com/).Among the articles, aboveground and belowground biomass (Mg ha−1) data were obtained using either a harvesting method (empirical) or an allometric method (calculation). Aboveground biomass represented the sum of stem, leaf, and branch dry weight, and we included prop root biomass when Rhizophora spp. were present. For soil coring methods that determined belowground biomass or sediment carbon density, belowground biomass was considered the dry weight of living coarse and fine roots multiplied by the ratio of core area to land surface area62. For allometric methods, trunk diameter at breast height (DBH, ~1.3 m) and tree height were used to calculate aboveground and belowground biomass by species-specific or common allometric equations63. These equations were also used to calculate the belowground biomass when articles provided plot information (DBH, height) but not belowground biomass (Supplementary Table 4). Total biomass was calculated as the sum of aboveground and belowground biomass. Deadwood and pneumatophore biomass were not included in our analysis; these data are rarely provided and/or methods of determination are inconsistent among global studies64. Some articles provided total biomass and shoot/root biomass ratio (S/R), and in such cases, above- and belowground biomass data were obtained through calculation as follows:$${{{{{rm{Aboveground}}}}}},{{{{{rm{biomass}}}}}}={{{{{rm{Total}}}}}},{{{{{rm{biomass}}}}}}times frac{frac{S}{R}}{frac{S}{R}+1}$$
(1)
$${{{{{rm{Belowground}}}}}},{{{{{rm{biomass}}}}}}={{{{{rm{Total}}}}}},{{{{{rm{biomass}}}}}}times frac{1}{frac{S}{R}+1}$$
(2)
For those articles measuring carbon content, study-specific carbon conversion factors were used to transform biomass to biomass carbon density (Mg C ha−1). If carbon content data were not provided, we converted aboveground and belowground biomass to carbon density by applying a conversion of 0.47 and 0.39, respectively65. The aboveground biomass carbon density was divided by its corresponding age to get the average aboveground biomass carbon accumulation rate (Mg C ha−1 yr−1).For sediment carbon density (SCS, Mg C ha−1), we selected the top 1 m because this depth equated to the most commonly reported depth and could reflect the impact of root mass input in the deeper depth66, which is also consistent with recent blue carbon standing stock assessment guidance64,67. Sediment carbon stock was calculated by multiplying sediment organic carbon content (SOC, %) by bulk density (BD, g cm−3), integrated over depth (cm). For studies that reported sediment carbon stock to More

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