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Impact of Bd endemism in amphibian communities in Flanders
In a first study, Bd prevalence was determined across our study area (Flanders, Belgium). We sampled 1483 amphibians belonging to 62 populations in 2015–2016 (Supplementary Fig. 1). To detect the presence of Bd, we collected swabs from the superficial skin surface of metamorphosed animals or the mouthparts of larval anurans. To study potential co-existence of Bd in the study region with small populations of a susceptible species (where negative effects are expected to be most obvious), in a second study, we sampled five breeding sites of midwife toads in Flanders for 4 consecutive years (Supplementary Table 2). In these breeding sites, larvae were counted once a year and their mouthparts were sampled for the presence of Bd. In a third field study, we selected 26 ponds across our study area containing at least a population of alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris), being the European urodele most likely infected by Bd. Ponds were sampled with funnel traps three or four times (depending on the presence of water) with a 1-month interval (March–June 2019). An envisaged 30 newts per sampling per pond were swabbed for the presence of Bd (Supplementary Table 3), weighed to the nearest 0.1 g and the snout-vent length measured to the nearest mm. As an estimate of body condition, we used the scaled mass index (SMI)45, which adjusts the mass of all individuals to that which they would have obtained if they had the same body size. SMI was calculated using the equation of the linear regression of log‐body mass on log‐snout-vent length estimated by type 2 (standardized major axis; SMA) regression45. Eleven outliers were present (i.e. |standardized residual| >3). These observations were not used for deriving SMI relationships (as per Peig and Green45). The regression slope was 2.87, and average snout-vent length was 42.7 mm. We thus calculated the SMI as (body mass × (42.7/snout-vent length)2.87). The average number of individuals caught per fyke per pond was used as proxy for newt density. To test whether trends in newt density (i.e. average number of newts per fyke) differed between Bd positive and Bd negative ponds, a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) was used specifying newt density as the dependent variable and the interaction between time (month) and Bd status (positive versus negative) as independent variables. Trends in newt density were better approximated by a quadratic relationship compared to a linear trend (delta AIC = 5.73). To test whether trends in SMI differed between Bd positive versus Bd negative newts, a GLMM was implemented using SMI as the dependent variable and time (month), Bd status (positive versus negative), newt sex (male versus female) and newt density (see above) as independent variables. The initial model contained all two-way interactions between the independent variables. For both GLMMs, pond was implemented as a random factor, and a Gaussian error structure was specified (model residuals were normally distributed, Shapiro–Wilk W  > 0.90). A frequentist approach was adopted whereby initial models were reduced in a stepwise manner, by excluding the variable with the highest P value until only P 90% purity). All conditions were analysed with Bd spores originating from BdJEL423, BdBE1-BdBE10 and they were tested in fourfold (biological replicates n = 4). Total RNA (1 μg) was reverse transcribed to cDNA with the iScript cDNA synthesis kit (Bio-Rad). The housekeeping genes α-centractin, APRT, TUB and Ctsyn1 were included as reference genes59. The list of genes and sequences of the primers used for quantitative PCR analysis can be found in Supplementary Table 10. Real-time quantitative PCR reactions were run in triplicate (technical replicates n = 3) and the reactions were performed in 10 μl volumes using the iQ SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad). The experimental protocol for PCR (40 cycles) was performed on a CFX384 RT-PCR cycler (Bio-Rad) and data were analysed using the Bio-Rad CFX manager 3.1. The results are shown as fold changes of mRNA expression relative to the mRNA expression levels in fresh spores. Fold changes were calculated using the cycle threshold (ΔΔCT) method, and they were analysed in SPSS version 25 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Multiple comparisons were assessed by a Kruskal–Wallis analysis, followed by pairwise Mann–Whitney U-tests adjusted for multiple testing with a Benjamini–Hochberg correction60, setting an adjusted P value of 0.05 as significant. Correlation between the relative expression of each isolate to BdJEL423 for CRN-like genes of fresh spores exposed to midwife toad skin and colonisation capacity from the individuals from the multi-isolate A. obstetricans infection trial was assessed by Spearman’s rank correlation in R54.
In vitro infection of A6 cells
Here, we compared the invasive capacity between hypervirulent and low-virulence local BdGPL isolates using a cell culture model. The Xenopus laevis kidney epithelial cell line A6 (ATCC-CCL 102) was grown in 75 cm2 cell culture flasks and maintained in complete growth medium (74% NCTC 109 medium, 15% distilled water, 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% of a 10,000 U ml−1 penicillin-streptomycin solution (P/S)) and the cells were incubated at 26 °C and 5% CO2 until they reached confluence. Using trypsin, the cells were detached, washed with 70% Hanks’ Balanced Salt Solution without Ca2+, Mg2+ (HBSS−) by centrifugation for 5 min at 1500 rpm and resuspended in the appropriate cell culture medium for invasion assays, which were performed as described in Verbrugghe et al.61. To assess the germ tube formation, A6 cells were stained with 3 µM CellTrackerTM Green CMFDA, seeded (105 cells per well) in 24-well tissue culture plates containing collagen-coated glass coverslips and they were allowed to attach for 2 h at 20 °C and 5% CO2. After washing three times with 70% HBSS+, they were inoculated with Bd zoospores in invasion medium, at a MOI of 1:10. Two hours p.i., the cells were washed three times with 70% HBSS+ and the invasion medium was replaced by staining medium. Four hours p.i., the infected cells were washed three times with HBSS+ and they were incubated with Calcofluor White stain (1 µg ml−1 in 70% HBSS+) for 10 min. After washing three times with 70% HBSS+, the cells were fixed, mounted and analysed using fluorescence microscopy. To assess the invasive growth, A6 cells were seeded and inoculated with Bd zoospores as described above. Two days p.i., the infected cells were stained with 3 µM CellTrackerTM Green CMFDA, washed three times with 70% HBSS+ and they were incubated with Calcofluor White stain (10 µg ml−1 in 70% HBSS+) for 10 min. After washing three times with HBSS+, the infected cells were fixed, permeabilized for 2 min with 0.1% triton and incubated for 60 min with a polyclonal antibody against Bd (1/1000), which was obtained by immunizing rabbits with Bd-antigen62. After washing three times with 70% HBSS+, the samples were incubated with a goat anti-rabbit Alexa Fluor 568 (1/500). After an incubation of 1 h, the samples were washed three times with 70% HBSS+, mounted and analysed using fluorescence microscopy and Leica Application Suite (LAS) software X. The Alexa Fluor 568 targeting Bd and Calcofluor White stainings are used in concert to assess the ability of Bd to penetrate the host cell. Calcofluor White is not internalized by A6 cells, whereas the Alexa Fluor 568 targeting Bd staining was applied after permeabilisation of the host cells. As such, intracellular Bd will only be targeted by the Alexa Fluor 568 and extracellular Bd bodies will be bound with both the Alexa Fluor 568 and Calcofluor White stain. Overlay pictures were made with ImageJ 1.52d software. To assess the in vitro infection dynamics of different BdGPL isolates, three independent in vitro experiments were conducted with every condition being tested in triplicate, with similar results.
Whole-genome sequence analysis
WGS read data were downloaded from NCBI Bioproject PRJNA413876 (SRA sample accession numbers: BdBE1; SRA: SRS2757215, BdBE3; SRA: SRS2757203, BdBE4; SRA: SRS2757202, BdBE5; SRA: SRS2757217, BdJEL423; SRA: SRS2757141). Reads were aligned to the reference BdJEL423 assembly (BioProject PRJNA13653) using BWA mem version 0.7.1763 and the aligned bam files were processed using Picard tools version 2.21.1 (http://picard.sourceforge.net/) AddOrReplace, MarkDuplicates, SortSam, CreateSequenceDictionary and ReorderSam. Variants were called using GATK v4.1.4.064 HaplotypeCaller, the output GVCFs were combined using CombineGVCFs, genotyped using GenotypeGVCFs, separated into SNP and Indel variants for filtering using SelectVariants and filtered using VariantFiltration with filters QD  60.0 || MQ  More

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