Muscatine, L. & Porter, J. W. Reef corals: Mutualistic symbioses adapted to nutrient-poor environments. Bioscience 27, 454–460 (1977).
Smith, D. C. & Douglas, A. E. The Biology of Symbiosis (Edward Arnold Ltd., London, 1987).
Rao, H. Interorganizational Ecology: Haygreeva. In The Blackwell Companion to Organisations (ed. Baum, J. A.) 541–556 (Backwell, Oxford, 2017).
Martínez-García, L. B., De Deyn, G. B., Pugnaire, F. I., Kothamasi, D. & van der Heijden, M. G. Symbiotic soil fungi enhance ecosystem resilience to climate change. Glob. Chang. Biol. 23, 5228–5236 (2017).
Compant, S., Van Der Heijden, M. G. & Sessitsch, A. Climate change effects on beneficial plant–microorganism interactions. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 73, 197–214 (2010).
Chase, T., Pratchett, M., Frank, G. & Hoogenboom, M. Coral-dwelling fish moderate bleaching susceptibility of coral hosts. PLoS ONE 13, e0208545 (2018).
Redman, R. S. et al. Increased fitness of rice plants to abiotic stress via habitat adapted symbiosis: A strategy for mitigating impacts of climate change. PLoS ONE 6, e14823 (2011).
Stewart, H. L., Holbrook, S. J., Schmitt, R. J. & Brooks, A. J. Symbiotic crabs maintain coral health by clearing sediments. Coral Reefs 25, 609–615 (2006).
Pachauri, R. K. et al. Climate change 2014: Synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (IPCC, Switzerland, 2014).
Hoegh-Guldberg, O. Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs. Mar. Freshw. Res. 50, 839–866 (1999).
Mieog, J. C. et al. The roles and interactions of symbiont, host and environment in defining coral fitness. PLoS ONE 4(7), e6364 (2009).
Davies, P. S. The role of zooxanthellae in the nutritional energy requirements of Pocillopora eydouxi. Coral Reefs 2, 181–186 (1984).
Cook, C., D’Elia, C. & Muller-Parker, G. Host feeding and nutrient sufficiency for zooxanthellae in the sea anemone Aiptasia pallida. Mar. Biol. 98, 253–262 (1988).
Roopin, M., Henry, R. P. & Chadwick, N. E. Nutrient transfer in a marine mutualism: Patterns of ammonia excretion by anemonefish and uptake by giant sea anemones. Mar. Biol. 154, 547–556 (2008).
Delia, C., Domotor, S. & Webb, K. Nutrient uptake kinetics of freshly isolated zooxanthellae. Mar. Biol. 75, 157–167 (1983).
Steen, R. G. & Muscatine, L. Low temperature evokes rapid exocytosis of symbiotic algae by a sea anemone. Biol. Bull. 172, 246–263 (1987).
Roopin, M. & Chadwick, N. E. Benefits to host sea anemones from ammonia contributions of resident anemonefish. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 370, 27–34 (2009).
Brown, B. E. Coral bleaching: Causes and consequences. Coral Reefs 16, 129–138 (1997).
Glynn, P. W. Widespread coral mortality and the 1982–83 El Niño warming event. Environ. Conserv. 11, 133–146 (1984).
McClanahan, T. R., Ateweberhan, M., Muhando, C. A., Maina, J. & Mohammed, M. S. Effects of climate and seawater temperature variation on coral bleaching and mortality. Ecol. Monogr. 77, 503–525 (2007).
Vinoth, R., Gopi, M., Kumar, T. T. A., Thangaradjou, T. & Balasubramanian, T. Coral reef bleaching at Agatti Island of Lakshadweep Atolls India. J. Ocean Univ. China 11, 105–110 (2012).
Hughes, T. P. et al. Global warming transforms coral reef assemblages. Nat. 556, 492–496 (2018).
Death, G., Fabricius, K. E., Sweatman, H. & Puotinen, M. The 27-year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 109, 17995–17999 (2012).
Hughes, T. P. Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265, 1547–1551 (1994).
McManus, J. W. & Polsenberg, J. F. Coral–algal phase shifts on coral reefs: Ecological and environmental aspects. Prog. Oceanogr. 60, 263–279 (2004).
Hughes, T. P., Graham, N. A., Jackson, J. B., Mumby, P. J. & Steneck, R. S. Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 633–642 (2010).
Garpe, K. C., Yahya, S. A., Lindahl, U. & Öhman, M. C. Long-term effects of the 1998 coral bleaching event on reef fish assemblages. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 315, 237–247 (2006).
Pratchett, M. S. et al. Effects of climate-induced coral bleaching on coral-reef fishes—ecological and economic consequences. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 46, 257–302 (2008).
Pratchett, M. S., Hoey, A. S., Wilson, S. K., Messmer, V. & Graham, N. A. Changes in biodiversity and functioning of reef fish assemblages following coral bleaching and coral loss. Divers. 3, 424–452 (2011).
Dunn, D. F. The clownfish sea anemones: Stichodactylidae (Coelenterata: Actiniaria) and other sea anemones symbiotic with pomacentrid fishes. Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. 71, 3–115 (1981).
Jones, A., Gardner, S. & Sinclair, W. Losing “Nemo”: Bleaching and collection appear to reduce inshore populations of anemonefishes. J. Fish Biol. 73, 753–761 (2008).
Scott, A. & Hoey, A. S. Severe consequences for anemonefishes and their host sea anemones during the 2016 bleaching event at Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 36, 873–873 (2017).
Hobbs, J. P. A. et al. Taxonomic, spatial and temporal patterns of bleaching in anemones inhabited by anemonefishes. PLoS ONE 8, e70966 (2013).
Hattori, A. Small and large anemonefishes can coexist using the same patchy resources on a coral reef, before habitat destruction. J. Anim. Ecol. 71, 824–831 (2002).
Weis, V. M. Cellular mechanisms of Cnidarian bleaching: Stress causes the collapse of symbiosis. J. Exp. Biol. 211, 3059–3066 (2008).
Saenz-Agudelo, P., Jones, G., Thorrold, S. & Planes, S. Detrimental effects of host anemone bleaching on anemonefish populations. Coral Reefs 30, 497–506 (2011).
Lönnstedt, O. M. & Frisch, A. J. Habitat bleaching disrupts threat responses and persistence in anemonefish. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 517, 265–270 (2014).
Beldade, R., Blandin, A., O’Donnell, R. & Mills, S. C. Cascading effects of thermally-induced anemone bleaching on associated anemonefish hormonal stress response and reproduction. Nat. Commun. 8, 716 (2017).
Hoegh-Guldberg, O. & Smith, G. J. Influence of the population density of zooxanthellae and supply of ammonium on the biomass and metabolic characteristics of the reef corals Seriatopora hystrix and Stylophora pistillata. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2, 173–186 (1989).
Holbrook, S. J. & Schmitt, R. J. Growth, reproduction and survival of a tropical sea anemone (Actiniaria): Benefits of hosting anemonefish. Coral Reefs 24, 67–73 (2005).
Porat, D. & Chadwick-Furman, N. Effects of anemonefish on giant sea anemones: Expansion behavior, growth, and survival. Hydrobiologia 530, 513–520 (2004).
Cleveland, A., Verde, E. A. & Lee, R. W. Nutritional exchange in a tropical tripartite symbiosis: Direct evidence for the transfer of nutrients from anemonefish to host anemone and zooxanthellae. Mar. Biol. 158, 589–602 (2011).
Fautin, D. G. & Allen, G. R. Field Guide to Anemonefishes and Their Host Sea Anemones (Western Australian Museum, Perth, 1992).
Hill, R. & Scott, A. The influence of irradiance on the severity of thermal bleaching in sea anemones that host anemonefish. Coral Reefs 31, 273–284 (2012).
Roughgarden, J. Evolution of marine symbiosis—a simple cost-benefit model. Ecology 56, 1201–1208 (1975).
Hobbs, J., Neilson, J. & Gilligan, J. Distribution, abundance, habitat association and extinction risk of marine fishes endemic to the Lord Howe Island region (Report to Lord Howe Island Marine Park (James Cook University, Townsville, 2009).
Porat, D. & Chadwick-Furman, N. Effects of anemonefish on giant sea anemones: Ammonium uptake, zooxanthella content and tissue regeneration. Mar. Freshw. Behav. Physiol. 38, 43–51 (2005).
Grottoli, A. G., Rodrigues, L. J. & Palardy, J. E. Heterotrophic plasticity and resilience in bleached corals. Nature 440, 1186–1189 (2006).
Borell, E. M. & Bischof, K. Feeding sustains photosynthetic quantum yield of a scleractinian coral during thermal stress. Oecologia 157, 593 (2008).
Borell, E. M., Yuliantri, A. R., Bischof, K. & Richter, C. The effect of heterotrophy on photosynthesis and tissue composition of two scleractinian corals under elevated temperature. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 364, 116–123 (2008).
Nakamura, T. & Van Woesik, R. Water-flow rates and passive diffusion partially explain differential survival of corals during the 1998 bleaching event. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 212, 301–304 (2001).
Gleason, D. F. & Wellington, G. M. Ultraviolet radiation and coral bleaching. Nature 365, 836 (1993).
Zepp, R. G. et al. Spatial and temporal variability of solar ultraviolet exposure of coral assemblages in the Florida Keys: Importance of colored dissolved organic matter. Limnol. Oceanogr. 53, 1909–1922 (2008).
Minasian, L. L. Jr. The relationship of size and biomass to fission rate in a clone of the sea anemone, Haliplanella luciae (Verrill). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 58, 151–162 (1982).
Miyawaki, M. Temperature as a factor influencing upon the fission of the orange-striped sea-anemone, Diadumene luciae. Zool. 11, 77–80 (1952).
Atoda, K. Pedal laceration of the sea anemone, Haliplanella luciae. Pub. Seto Mar. Biol. Lab. 20, 299–313 (1973).
Minasian, L. L. Jr. & Mariscal, R. N. Characteristics and regulation of fission activity in clonal cultures of the cosmopolitan sea anemone, Haliplanella luciae (Verrill). Biol. Bull. 157, 478–493 (1979).
Holbrook, S. J., Brooks, A. J., Schmitt, R. J. & Stewart, H. L. Effects of sheltering fish on growth of their host corals. Mar. Biol. 155, 521–530 (2008).
Johnson, L. L. & Shick, J. M. Effects of fluctuating temperature and immersion on asexual reproduction in the intertidal sea anemone Hauplanella luciae (Verrill) in laboratory culture. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 28, 141–149 (1977).
Hand, C. & Uhlinger, K. R. Asexual reproduction by transverse fission and some anomalies in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. Invertebr. Biol. 2, 9–18 (1995).
Tsuchida, C. B. & Potts, D. C. The effects of illumination, food and symbionts on growth of the sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima (Brandt, 1835). II. Clonal growth. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 183, 243–258 (1994).
Hughes, T. P. et al. Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals. Nature 543, 373–377 (2017).
Holbrook, S. J., Forrester, G. E. & Schmitt, R. J. Spatial patterns in abundance of a damselfish reflect availability of suitable habitat. Oecologia 122, 109–120 (2000).
Munday, P. L. Interactions between habitat use and patterns of abundance in coral-dwelling fishes of the genus Gobiodon. Environ. Biol. Fish. 58, 355–369 (2000).
Pontasch, S. et al. Photochemical efficiency and antioxidant capacity in relation to Symbiodinium genotype and host phenotype in a symbiotic cnidarian. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 516, 195–208 (2014).
IPCC. Climate Change 2014–Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Regional Aspect (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014).
Siebeck, U., Marshall, N., Klüter, A. & Hoegh-Guldberg, O. Monitoring coral bleaching using a colour reference card. Coral Reefs 25, 453–460 (2006).
Marshall, N. J., Kleine, D. A. & Dean, A. J. CoralWatch: Education, monitoring, and sustainability through citizen science. Front Ecol Environ 10, 332–334 (2012).
Association, A. P. H. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (American Public Health Association, Washington, 2005).
AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International (Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Rockville, 2000).
Jeffrey, S. T. & Humphrey, G. F. New spectrophotometric equations for determining chlorophylls a, b, c1 and c2 in higher plants, algae and natural phytoplankton. Biochemie und physiologie der pflanzen 167, 191–194 (1974).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
