Schmitz, O. J., Miller, J. R. B., Trainor, A. M. & Abrahms, B. Toward a community ecology of landscapes: predicting multiple predator–prey interactions across geographic space. Ecology 98, 2281–2292 (2017).
van Noordwijk, A. J. & de Jong, G. Acquisition and allocation of resources: their influence on variation in life history. Am. Nat. 128, 137–142 (1986).
Gaillard, J.-M. et al. Habitat-performance relationships: finding the right metric at a given spatial scale. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 365, 2255–2265 (2010).
Mosser, A., Fryxell, J. M., Eberly, L. & Packer, C. Serengeti real estate: Density vs. fitness-based indicators of lion habitat quality. Ecol. Lett.12, 1050–1060 (2009).
Kosterman, M. K., Squires, J. R., Holbrook, J. D., Pletscher, D. H. & Hebblewhite, M. Forest structure provides the income for reproductive success in a southern population of Canada lynx. Ecol. Appl. 28, 1032–1043 (2018).
DeCesare, N. J. et al. Linking habitat selection and predation risk to spatial variation in survival. J. Anim. Ecol. 83, 343–352 (2014).
Hebblewhite, M., Merrill, E. H. & McDonald, T. L. Spatial decomposition of predation risk using resource selection functions: An example in a wolf-elk predator-prey system. Oikos 111, 101–111 (2005).
McLoughlin, P. D., Dunford, J. S. & Boutin, S. Relating predation mortality to broad-scale habitat selection. J. Anim. Ecol. 74, 701–707 (2005).
Ritchie, E. G. & Johnson, C. N. Predator interactions, mesopredator release and biodiversity conservation. Ecol. Lett. 12, 982–998 (2009).
Vanak, A. T. et al. Moving to stay in place: behavioral mechanisms for coexistence of African large carnivores. Ecology 94, 2619–2631 (2013).
Torretta, E., Serafini, M., Puopolo, F. & Schenone, L. Spatial and temporal adjustments allowing the coexistence among carnivores in Liguria (N–W Italy). Acta Ethol. 19, 123–132 (2016).
Preisser, E. L., Bolnick, D. I. & Benard, M. F. Scared to death? The effects of intimidation and consumption in predator–prey interactions. Ecology 86, 501–509 (2005).
Swanson, A. et al. Cheetahs and wild dogs show contrasting patterns of suppression by lions. J. Anim. Ecol. 83, 1418–1427 (2014).
Levi, T. & Wilmers, C. Wolves—coyotes—foxes: a cascade among carnivores. Ecology 93, 921–929 (2012).
Henke, S. E. & Bryant, F. C. Effects of coyote removal on the faunal community in western Texas. J. Wildl. Manag. 63, 1066 (1999).
Gehrt, S. D. & Prange, S. Interference competition between coyotes and raccoons: a test of the mesopredator release hypothesis. Behav. Ecol. 18, 204–214 (2007).
St-Pierre, C., Ouellet, J. P. & Crête, M. Do competitive intraguild interactions affect space and habitat use by small carnivores in a forested landscape?. Ecography (Cop.) 29, 487–496 (2006).
Shores, C. R., Dellinger, J. A., Newkirk, E. S., Kachel, S. M. & Wirsing, A. J. Mesopredators change temporal activity in response to a recolonizing apex predator. Behav. Ecol. 30, 1324–1335 (2019).
Allen, M. L., Elbroch, L. M., Wilmers, C. C. & Wittmer, H. U. The comparative effects of large carnivores on the acquisition of carrion by scavengers. Am. Nat. 185, 822–833 (2015).
Janssen, A., Sabelis, M. W., Magalhães, S. & Van, T. Habitat structure affects intraguild predation. Ecology 88, 2713–2719 (2007).
Finke, D. L. & Denno, R. F. Intraguild predation diminished in complex-structured vegetation: Implication for prey suppression. Ecology 83, 643–652 (2002).
Laurenson, M. K. High juvenile mortality in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and its consequences for maternal care. J. Zool. Soc. Lond. 234, 387–408 (1994).
Hunter, J. S., Durant, S. M. & Caro, T. M. To flee or not to flee: predator avoidance by cheetahs at kills. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 61, 1033–1042 (2007).
Hilborn, A. et al. Cheetahs modify their prey handling behavior depending on risks from top predators. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.72, 74 (2018).
Swanson, A., Arnold, T., Kosmala, M., Forester, J. & Packer, C. In the absence of a “landscape of fear”: How lions, hyenas, and cheetahs coexist. Ecol. Evol. 6, 8534–8545 (2016).
Dröge, E., Creel, S., Becker, M. S. & M’soka, J. Spatial and temporal avoidance of risk within a large carnivore guild. Ecol. Evol.7, 189–199 (2016).
Broekhuis, F., Cozzi, G., Valeix, M., Mcnutt, J. W. & Macdonald, D. W. Risk avoidance in sympatric large carnivores: Reactive or predictive?. J. Anim. Ecol. 82, 1098–1105 (2013).
Mills, M. G. L. & Mills, M. E. J. Cheetah cub survival revisited: a re-evaluation of the role of predation, especially by lions, and implications for conservation. J. Zool. 292, 136–141 (2014).
Broekhuis, F. Natural and anthropogenic drivers of cub recruitment in a large carnivore. Ecol. Evol. 8, 6748–6755 (2018).
Orrock, J. L., Preisser, E. L., Grabowski, J. H. & Trussell, G. C. The cost of safety: refuges increase the impact of predation risk in aquatic systems. Ecology 94, 573–579 (2013).
Donelan, S. C., Grabowski, J. H. & Trussell, G. C. Refuge quality impacts the strength of nonconsumptive effects on prey. Ecology 98, 403–411 (2016).
Miller, J. R. B., Ament, J. M. & Schmitz, O. J. Fear on the move: predator hunting mode predicts variation in prey mortality and plasticity in prey spatial response. J. Anim. Ecol. 83, 214–222 (2014).
Michel, M. J. & Adams, M. M. Differential effects of structural complexity on predator foraging behavior. Behav. Ecol. 20, 313–317 (2009).
Blake, L. W. & Gese, E. M. Resource selection by cougars: influence of behavioral state and season. J. Wildl. Manag. 80, 1205–1217 (2016).
Hopcraft, J. G. C., Sinclair, A. R. E. & Packer, C. Planning for success: Serengeti lions seek prey accessibility rather than abundance. J. Anim. Ecol. 74, 559–566 (2005).
Davies, A. B., Tambling, C. J., Kerley, G. I. H. & Asner, G. P. Effects of vegetation structure on the location of lion kill sites in African thicket. PLoS ONE 11, 1–20 (2016).
Camp, M. J., Rachlow, J. L., Woods, B. A., Johnson, T. R. & Shipley, L. A. When to run and when to hide: the influence of concealment, visibility, and proximity to refugia on perceptions of risk. Ethology 118, 1010–1017 (2012).
Wilson, A. M. et al. Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs. Nature 498, 185–189 (2013).
Rostro-García, S., Kamler, J. F. & Hunter, L. T. B. To kill, stay or flee: the effects of lions and landscape factors on habitat and kill site selection of cheetahs in South Africa. PLoS ONE 10, e0117743 (2015).
Mills, M. G. L., Broomhall, L. S., du Toit, J. T. & Toit, J. T. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus feeding ecology in the Kruger National Park and a comparison across African savanna habitats: is the cheetah only a successful hunter on open grassland plains?. Wildl. Biol. 10, 177–186 (2004).
Fuller, T. & Sievert, P. Carnivore demography and the consequences of changes in prey availability. in Carnivore conservation (eds. Gittleman, J. L., Funk, S. M., Macdonald, D. & Wayne, R. K.) 163–179 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2001).
Balme, G., Hunter, L. T. B. & Slotow, R. Feeding habitat selection by hunting leopards Panthera pardus in a woodland savanna: prey catchability versus abundance. Anim. Behav. 74, 589–598 (2007).
Gosselink, T. E., Van Deelen, T. R., Warner, R. E. & Joselyn, M. G. Temporal habitat partitioning and spatial use of coyotes and red foxes in East-Central Illinois. J. Wildl. Manag. 67, 90–103 (2003).
Palomares, F. & Caro, T. M. Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores. Am. Nat. 153, 492–508 (1999).
Brown, J. S. Vigilance, patch use and habitat selection: foraging under predation risk. Evol. Ecol. Res. 1, 49–71 (1999).
Creel, S. The control of risk hypothesis: reactive vs. proactive antipredator responses and stress-mediated vs. food-mediated costs of response. Ecol. Lett.21, 947–956 (2018).
Dudeck, B. P., Clinchy, M., Allen, M. C. & Zanette, L. Y. Fear affects parental care, which predicts juvenile survival and exacerbates the total cost of fear on demography. Ecology 99, 127–135 (2018).
Gigliotti, L. C. et al. Context-dependency of top-down, bottom-up, and density-dependent influences on cheetah demography. J. Anim. Ecol. 2, 449–459 (2020).
Relyea, R. A. Morphological and behavioral plasticity of larval anurans in response to different predators. Ecology 82, 523–540 (2001).
Suraci, J. P., Clinchy, M., Dill, L. M., Roberts, D. & Zanette, L. Y. Fear of large carnivores causes a trophic cascade. Nat. Commun. 7, 1–7 (2016).
Valeix, M. et al. Behavioral adjustments of African herbivores to predation risk by lions: Spatiotemporal variations influence habitat use. Ecology 90, 23–30 (2009).
Sheriff, M. J., Krebs, C. J. & Boonstra, R. The sensitive hare: sublethal effects of predator stress on reproduction in snowshoe hares. J. Anim. Ecol. 78, 1249–1258 (2009).
Clinchy, M. et al. Multiple measures elucidate glucocorticoid responses to environmental variation in predation threat. Oecologia 166, 607–614 (2011).
Travers, M., Clinchy, M., Zanette, L., Boonstra, R. & Williams, T. D. Indirect predator effects on clutch size and the cost of egg production. Ecol. Lett. 13, 980–988 (2010).
LaManna, J. A. & Martin, T. E. Costs of fear: behavioural and life-history responses to risk and their demographic consequences vary across species. Ecol. Lett. 19, 403–413 (2016).
Roques, K. G., O’Connor, T. G. & Watkinson, A. R. Dynamics of shrub encroachment in an African savanna: Relative influences of fire, herbivory, rainfall and density dependence. J. Appl. Ecol. 38, 268–280 (2001).
Tews, J. & Jeltsch, F. Modelling the impact of climate change on woody plant population dynamics in South African savanna. BMC Ecol. 4, 1–12 (2004).
Joubert, D. F., Smit, G. N. & Hoffman, M. T. The role of fire in preventing transitions from a grass dominated state to a bush thickened state in arid savannas. J. Arid Environ. 87, 1–7 (2012).
Lohmann, D., Tietjen, B., Blaum, N., Joubert, D. F. & Jeltsch, F. Prescribed fire as a tool for managing shrub encroachment in semi-arid savanna rangelands. J. Arid Environ. 107, 49–56 (2014).
Durant, S. M. et al. The global decline of cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and what it means for conservation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 114, 528–533 (2017).
Weise, F. J. et al. The distribution and numbers of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in southern Africa. PeerJ 5, e4096 (2017).
Prugh, L. R. et al. Designing studies of predation risk for improved inference in carnivore-ungulate systems. Biol. Conserv. 232, 194–207 (2019).
Moll, R. J. et al. The many faces of fear: a synthesis of the methodological variation in characterizing predation risk. J. Anim. Ecol. 86, 749–765 (2017).
Janse van Rensburg, J., McMillan, M., Giżejewska, A. & Fattebert, J. Rainfall predicts seasonal home range size variation in nyala. Afr. J. Ecol.56, 418–423 (2018).
Hunter, L. T. B. The behavioural ecology of reintroduced lions and cheetahs in the Phinda Resource Reserve, Kwazulz-Natal, South Africa. Phd thesis 1–206 (1998).
Caro, T. M. Cheetahs of the Serengeti Plains. (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1994).
Gitzen, R. A., Millspaugh, J. J. & Kernohan, B. J. Bandwidth selection for fixed-kernel analysis of animal utilization distributions. J. Wildl. Manag. 70, 1334–1344 (2006).
Thaker, M. et al. Minimizing predation risk in a landscape of multiple predators: effects on the spatial distribution of African ungulates. Ecology 92, 398–407 (2011).
Moll, R. J., Killion, A. K., Montgomery, R. A., Tambling, C. J. & Hayward, M. W. Spatial patterns of African ungulate aggregation reveal complex but limited risk effects from reintroduced carnivores. Ecology 97, 1123–1134 (2016).
Kauffman, M. J. et al. Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator-prey system. Ecol. Lett. 10, 690–700 (2007).
Tsalyuk, M., Kelly, M. & Getz, W. M. Improving the prediction of African savanna vegetation variables using time series of MODIS products. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 131, 77–91 (2017).
Winterstein, S. R. Chi-square tests for intrabrood independence when using the Mayfield method. J. Wildl. Manage. 56, 398–402 (1992).
Barker, R. J., White, G. C. & McDougall, M. Movement of Paradise Shelduck between molt sites: a joint multistate-dead recovery mark-recapture model. J. Wildl. Manage. 69, 1194–1201 (2005).
Laake, J. L. RMark: An R Interface for Analysis of Capture-Recapture Data with MARK. Version 2.2.4. (2013).
Kelly, M. J. et al. Demography of the Serengeti cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population: the first 25 years. J. Zool. 224, 473–488 (1998).
Burnham, K. P. & Anderson, D. R. Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: A Practical Information-Theoretic Approach (Springer, Berlin, 2002).
Arnold, T. W. Uninformative parameters and model selection using Akaike’s Information Criterion. J. Wildl. Manag. 74, 1175–1178 (2010).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
