Lai, C.-C., Shih, T.-P., Ko, W.-C., Tang, H.-J. & Hsueh, P.-R. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): the epidemic and the challenges. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents55, 105924 (2020).
Zu, Z. Y. et al. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): a perspective from China. Radiology. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200490 (2020).
Wu, F. et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature579, 265–269 (2020).
Wang, X. W. et al. Study on the resistance of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus. J. Virol. Methods126, 171–177 (2005).
Drosten, C. et al. Clinical features and virological analysis of a case of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Lancet Infect. Dis.13, 745–751 (2013).
Leung, W. K. et al. Enteric involvement of severe acute respiratory syndrome – Associated coronavirus infection. Gastroenterology125, 1011–1017 (2003).
Casanova, L., Rutala, W. A., Weber, D. J. & Sobsey, M. D. Survival of surrogate coronaviruses in water. Water Res.43, 1893–1898 (2009).
Dhama, K. et al. COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics. Hum. Vaccin. Immunother. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1735227 (2020).
Rodriguez-morales, A. J. et al. COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: current scenario and recent developments—an overview. J. Pure Appl. Microbiol.14, 5–12 (2020).
del Rio, C. & Malani, P. N. COVID-19—new insights on a rapidly changing epidemic. JAMA323, 1339–1340 (2020).
Zheng, Y.-Y., Ma, Y.-T., Zhang, J.-Y. & Xie, X. COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nat. Rev. Cardiol.17, 259–260 (2020).
Tikellis, C. & Thomas, M. C. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a key modulator of the renin angiotensin system in health and disease. Int. J. Pept. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/256294 (2012).
Lamers, M. M. et al. SARS-CoV-2 productively infects human gut enterocytes. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc1669 (2020).
Jiang, F. et al. Review of the Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). J. Gen. Intern. Med.35, 1545–1549 (2020).
Liu, Y., Gayle, A. A., Wilder-Smith, A. & Rocklöv, J. The reproductive number of COVID-19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus. J. Travel Med.27, taaa021 (2020).
Organization (WHO), W. H. Water, sanitation, hygiene, and waste management for the COVID-19 virus. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331499/WHO-2019-nCoV-IPC_WASH-2020.2-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (2020).
Patel, R., Moore, M. R. & Fields, M. S. Legionellosis. Bact. Infect. Humans: Epidemiol. Control19, 395–413 (2009).
Outbreak of Cryptosporidiosis associated with a water sprinkler Fountain—Minnesota, 1997. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00055289.htm (1998).
Marks, P. J. et al. A school outbreak of Norwalk-like virus: evidence for airborne transmission. Epidemiol. Infect.131, 727–736 (2003).
LeDuc, J. W. Hantaviruses. in Viral Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0036-4_12 (1997).
Dehghani, R. & Kassiri, H. A brief review on the possible role of houseflies and cockroaches in the mechanical transmission of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Arch. Clin. Infect. Dis. https://doi.org/10.5812/archcid.102863 (2020).
Chen, N. et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet395, 507–13 (2020).
Wang, D. et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA – J. Am. Med. Assoc.323, 1061–1069 (2020).
Wölfel, R. et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature581, 465–469 (2020).
Huang, C. et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet395, 497–506 (2020).
Holshue, M. L. et al. First case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med.382, 929–936 (2020).
Zhou, P. et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature579, 270–273 (2020).
Mallapaty, S. How sewage could reveal true scale of coronavirus outbreak. Nature580, 176–177 (2020).
Lesté-Lasserre, C. Coronavirus found in Paris sewage points to early warning system. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc3799 (2020).
Wang, X. W. et al. Concentration and detection of SARS coronavirus in sewage from Xiao Tang Shan hospital and the 309th Hospital of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army. Water Sci. Technol.52, 213–221 (2005).
Gu, J., Han, B. & Wang, J. COVID-19: gastrointestinal manifestations and potential fecal–oral transmission. Gastroenterology158, 1518–1519 (2020).
Kam, K. et al. A well infant with coronavirus disease 2019 with high viral load. Clin. Infect. Dis. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa201 (2020).
Ling, Y. et al. Persistence and clearance of viral RNA in 2019 novel coronavirus disease rehabilitation patients. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.).133, 1039–1043 (2020).
Wang, W. et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in different types of clinical specimens. JAMA – J. Am. Med. Assoc.323, 1843–1844 (2020).
Tang, A. et al. Detection of Novel Coronavirus by RT-PCR in stool specimen from asymptomatic child, China. Emerg. Infect. Dis.26, 1337–1339 (2020).
de Graaf, M. et al. Sustained fecal-oral human-to-human transmission following a zoonotic event. Curr. Opin. Virol.22, 1–6 (2017).
Xu, Y. et al. Characteristics of pediatric SARS-CoV-2 infection and potential evidence for persistent fecal viral shedding. Nat. Med.26, 502–505 (2020).
Xing, Y.-H. et al. Prolonged viral shedding in feces of pediatric patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.021 (2020).
Munster, V. J., Koopmans, M., van Doremalen, N., van Riel, D. & de Wit, E. A novel coronavirus emerging in China—key questions for impact assessment. N. Engl. J. Med.382, 692–694 (2020).
Harmer, D., Gilbert, M., Borman, R. & Clark, K. L. Quantitative mRNA expression profiling of ACE 2, a novel homologue of angiotensin converting enzyme. FEBS Lett.532, 107–110 (2002).
Weiss, S. R. & Navas-Martin, S. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.69, 635–664 (2005).
Xiao, F. et al. Evidence for gastrointestinal infection of SARS-CoV-2. Gastroenterology158, 1831–1833 (2020).
Zhang, W. et al. Molecular and serological investigation of 2019-nCoV infected patients: implication of multiple shedding routes. Emerg. Microbes Infect.9, 386–389 (2020).
Zhang, Y. et al. Isolation of 2019-nCoV from a Stool Specimen of a Laboratory-Confirmed Case of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). China CDC Wkly.2, 123–124 (2020).
Lee, P. I. & Hsueh, P. R. Emerging threats from zoonotic coronaviruses-from SARS and MERS to 2019-nCoV. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.02.001 (2020).
Xu, R. et al. Saliva: potential diagnostic value and transmission of 2019-nCoV. Int. J. Oral. Sci.12, 11 (2020).
Bosch, A. Human enteric viruses in the water environment: a minireview. Int. Microbiol.1, 191–196 (1998).
Hart, O. E. & Halden, R. U. Computational analysis of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 surveillance by wastewater-based epidemiology locally and globally: Feasibility, economy, opportunities and challenges. Sci. Total Environ.730, 138875 (2020).
Zhang, N. et al. Virus shedding patterns in nasopharyngeal and fecal specimens of COVID-19 patients. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.28.20043059v1 (2020).
Brown, D. M., Butler, D., Orman, N. R. & Davies, J. W. Gross solids transport in small diameter sewers. Water Sci. Technol.33, 25–30 (1996).
Hellmér, M. et al. Detection of pathogenic viruses in sewage provided early warnings of hepatitis A virus and norovirus outbreaks. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.80, 6771–6781 (2014).
Global Water Pathogen Project. In Part four. Management of risk from excreta and wastewater. Global Water Pathogen Project. http://www.waterpathogens.org/node/103 (2019).
Bhowmick, G. D., Das, S., Ghangrekar, M. M., Mitra, A. & Banerjee, R. Improved wastewater treatment by combined system of microbial fuel cell with activated carbon/TiO2 cathode catalyst and membrane bioreactor. J. Inst. Eng. Ser. A.100, 675–682 (2019).
Lodder, W. & de Roda Husman, A. M. SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater: potential health risk, but also data source. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol.5, 533–534 (2020).
Gerba, C. P., Stagg, C. H. & Abadie, M. G. Characterization of sewage solid-associated viruses and behavior in natural waters. Water Res.12, 805–812 (1978).
John, D. E. & Rose, J. B. Review of factors affecting microbial survival in groundwater. Environ. Sci. Technol.39, 7345–7356 (2005).
Yang, H. et al. Design of wide-spectrum inhibitors targeting coronavirus main proteases. PLoS Biol.3, 1742–1752 (2005).
Zhang, C. M., Xu, L. M., Xu, P. C. & Wang, X. C. Elimination of viruses from domestic wastewater: requirements and technologies. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol.32, 1–9 (2016).
Du, Y. et al. Formation and control of disinfection byproducts and toxicity during reclaimed water chlorination: a review. J. Environ. Sci.58, 51–63 (2017).
Yeo, C., Kaushal, S. & Yeo, D. Enteric involvement of coronaviruses: is faecal–oral transmission of SARS-CoV-2 possible? Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol.5, 335–337 (2020).
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/php/water.html (2020).
Medema, G., Heijnen, L., Elsinga, G., Italiaander, R. & Brouwer, A. Presence of SARS-Coronavirus-2 RNA in Sewage and Correlation with Reported COVID-19 Prevalence in the Early Stage of the Epidemic in The Netherlands. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. A-F. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00357 (2020).
Ahmed, W. et al. First confirmed detection of SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewater in Australia: a proof of concept for the wastewater surveillance of COVID-19 in the community. Sci. Total Environ.728, 138764 (2020).
La Rosa, G. et al. First detection of SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewaters in Italy. Sci. Total Environ.736, 139652 (2020).
Randazzo, W., Cuevas-Ferrando, E., Sanjuan, R., Domingo-Calap, P. & Sanchez, G. Metropolitan wastewater analysis for COVID-19 epidemiological surveillance. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.23.20076679v2 (2020).
Wurtzer, S., Marechal, V., Mouchel, J.-M. & Moulin, L. Time course quantitative detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Parisian wastewaters correlates with COVID-19 confirmed cases. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.12.20062679v1.full.pdf (2020).
National status of waste water generation & treatment. ENVIS Centre on Hygiene, Sanitation, Sewage Treatment Systems and Technology. http://www.sulabhenvis.nic.in/Database/STST_wastewater_2090.aspx (2019).
Tibbetts, J. Combined sewer systems: down, dirty, and out of date. Environ. Health Perspect.113, A 465–A 467 (2005).
De Man, H. et al. Quantitative assessment of infection risk from exposure to waterborne pathogens in urban floodwater. Water Res.48, 90–99 (2014).
Banks, D., Karnachuk, O. V., Parnachev, V. P., Holden, W. & Frengstad, B. Groundwater contamination from rural pit latrines: examples from Siberia and Kosova. J. Chart. Inst. Water Environ. Manag.16, 147–152 (2002).
The Sphere Project & The Sphere Project. 4. Minimum Standards in Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion. in Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response. https://doi.org/10.3362/9781908176202.004 (2011).
Masclaux, F. G., Hotz, P., Gashi, D., Savova-Bianchi, D. & Oppliger, A. Assessment of airborne virus contamination in wastewater treatment plants. Environ. Res.133, 260–265 (2014).
Wigginton, K. R., Ye, Y. & Ellenberg, R. M. Emerging investigators series: The source and fate of pandemic viruses in the urban water cycle. Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol.1, 735–746 (2015).
Yu, I. T. S., Qiu, H., Tse, L. A. & Wong, T. W. Severe acute respiratory syndrome beyond amoy gardens: completing the incomplete legacy. Clin. Infect. Dis.58, 683–686 (2014).
Regan, H. How can the coronavirus spread through bathroom pipes? Experts are investigating in Hong Kong. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/12/asia/hong-kong-coronavirus-pipes-intl-hnk/index.html (2020).
Press Trust of India. Kapashera hot spot: No space for social-distancing in cramped rooms, common toilets. INDIA TODAY. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kapashera-hot-spot-no-space-for-social-distancing-in-cramped-rooms-common-toilets-1673968-2020-05-03 (2020).
Li, R. A., McDonald, J. A., Sathasivan, A. & Khan, S. J. Disinfectant residual stability leading to disinfectant decay and by-product formation in drinking water distribution systems: a systematic review. Water Res.153, 335–348 (2019).
Naidoo, S. & Olaniran, A. O. Treated wastewater effluent as a source of microbial pollution of surface water resources. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health11, 249–270 (2013).
Water Quality and Wastewater. United Nations. https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/quality-and-wastewater/ (2020).
Heller, L., Mota, C. R. & Greco, D. B. COVID-19 faecal-oral transmission: Are we asking the right questions? Sci. Total Environ.729, 138919 (2020).
Rabenau, H. F. et al. Stability and inactivation of SARS coronavirus. Med. Microbiol. Immunol.194, 1–6 (2005).
Duan, S. M. et al. Stability of SARS Coronavirus in human specimens and environment and its sensitivity to heating and UV irradiation. Biomed. Environ. Sci.16, 246–55 (2003).
Jackwood, M. W. The relationship of severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus with avian and other Coronaviruses. Avian Dis.50, 315–320 (2006).
Gundy, P. M., Gerba, C. P. & Pepper, I. L. Survival of Coronaviruses in Water and Wastewater. Food Environ. Virol.1, 10–14 (2009).
Peng, L. et al. SARS-CoV-2 can be detected in urine, blood, anal swabs, and oropharyngeal swabs specimens. J. Med. Virol. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25936 (2020).
World Health Organization. Laboratory testing for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in suspected human cases. https://www.who.int/publications-detail/laboratory-testing-for-2019-novel-coronavirus-in-suspected-human-cases-20200117 (2020).
Yates, M. V., Gerba, C. P. & Kelley, L. M. Virus persistence in groundwater. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.49, 778–781 (1985).
Hurst, C. J., Benton, W. H. & McClellan, K. A. Thermal and water source effects upon the stability of enteroviruses in surface freshwaters. Can. J. Microbiol.35, 474–480 (1989).
Enriquez, C. E., Hurst, C. J. & Gerba, C. P. Survival of the enteric adenoviruses 40 and 41 in tap, sea, and waste water. Water Res.29, 2548–2553 (1995).
World Health Organization. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First Addendum. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First Addendum. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28759192 (2017).
Wang, J. et al. SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection of hospital isolation wards hygiene monitoring during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 outbreak in a Chinese hospital. Int. J. Infect. Dis.94, 103–106 (2020).
Ghernaout, D. & Elboughdiri, N. Environmental engineering for stopping viruses pandemics. Open Access Library J. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106299 (2020).
Mao, K., Zhang, H. & Yang, Z. Can a paper-based device trace COVID-19 sources with wastewater-based epidemiology? Environ. Sci. Technol.54, 3733–3735 (2020).
Hilaire, B. G. S. et al. A rapid, low cost, and highly sensitive SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic based on whole genome sequencing. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.25.061499 (2020).
Cornwall, W. Can you put a price on COVID-19 options? Experts weigh lives versus economics. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb9969 (2020).
Pastorino, B., Touret, F., Gilles, M., de Lamballerie, X. & Charrel, R. N. Evaluation of heating and chemical protocols for inactivating SARS-CoV-2. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.11.036855v1.full (2020).
Gormley, M., Aspray, T. J. & Kelly, D. A. COVID-19: mitigating transmission via wastewater plumbing systems. Lancet Glob. Heal.8, E643 (2020).
Bartram, J., Brocklehurst, C., Bradley, D., Muller, M. & Evans, B. Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation. npj Clean. Water1, 3 (2018).
Source: Resources - nature.com