Zenner, E. Does old-growth condition imply high live-tree structural complexity?. For. Ecol. Manag. 195, 243–258 (2004).
Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team (FEMAT). Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on Management of Habitat for Late Successional and Oldgrowth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993).
Wan, P. et al. Impacts of different forest management methods on the stand spatial structure of a natural Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata forest in Xiaolongshan, China. Ecol. Inform. 50, 86–94 (2019).
Carrer, M., Castagneri, D., Popa, I., Pividori, M. & Lingua, E. Tree spatial patterns and stand attributes in temperate forests: The importance of plot size, sampling design, and null model. For. Ecol. Manag. 407, 125–134 (2018).
Bauhus, J., Puettmann, K. & Messier, C. Silviculture for old-growth attributes. For. Ecol. Manag. 258, 525–537 (2009).
Messier, C., Puettmann, K. J. & Coates, D. K. Managing Forests as Complex Adaptive Systems: Building Resilience to the Challenge of Global Change (Routledge, Abingdon, 2013).
McElhinny, C., Gibbons, P., Brack, C. & Bauhus, J. Forest and woodland stand structural complexity: Its definition and measurement. For. Ecol. Manage. 218, 1–24 (2005).
Di Filippo, A., Biondi, F., Piovesan, G. & Ziaco, E. Tree ring-based metrics for assessing old-growth forest naturalness. J. Appl. Ecol. 54, 737–749 (2017).
Parrotta, J. A., Turnbull, J. W. & Jones, N. Catalyzing native forest regeneration on degraded tropical lands. For. Ecol. Manag. 99, 1–7 (1997).
Neumann, M. & Starlinger, F. The significance of different indices for stand structure and diversity in forests. For. Ecol. Manag. 145, 91–106 (2001).
McCleary, K. & Mowat, G. Using forest structural diversity to inventory habitat diversity of forest-dwelling wildlife in the West Kootenay region of British Columbia 2 1–13 (2002).
Ishii, H. T., Tanabe, S.-I. & Hiura, T. Exploring the relationships among canopy structure, stand productivity, and biodiversity of temperate forest ecosystems. For. Sci. 50, 342–355 (2004).
Tews, J. et al. Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. J. Biogeogr. 31, 79–92 (2004).
Long, J. N. & Shaw, J. D. The influence of compositional and structural diversity on forest productivity. Forestry 83, 121–128 (2010).
Dănescu, A., Albrecht, A. & Bauhus, J. Structural diversity promotes productivity of mixed, uneven-aged forests in southwestern Germany. Oecologia 182, 319–333 (2016).
Ehbrecht, M., Schall, P., Ammer, C. & Seidel, D. Quantifying stand structural complexity and its relationship with forest management, tree species diversity and microclimate. Agric. For. Meteorol. 242, 1–9 (2017).
Zenner, E. K. Do residual trees increase structural complexity in pacific northwest?. Ecol. Appl. 10, 800–810 (2000).
Hardiman, B. S., Bohrer, G., Gough, C. M., Vogel, C. S. & Curtisi, P. S. The role of canopy structural complexity in wood net primary production of a maturing northern deciduous forest. Ecology 92, 1818–1827 (2011).
Puettmann, K. J., Coates, K. D. & Messier, C. C. A Critique of Silviculture: Managing for Complexity (Island Press, Washington, D.C., 2012).
Robertson, G. P. & Tiedje, J. Spatial variability in a successional plant community: patterns of nitrogen availability. Ecology 69, 0–1524 (1988).
Palmer, M. W. Spatial scale and patterns of species-environment relationships in hardwood forest of the North Carolina piedmont. Coenoses, 79–87 (1990).
Lechowicz, M. & Bell, G. The ecology and genetics of fitness in forest plants. II. Microspatial heterogeneity of the edaphic environment. J. Ecol. 79, 687 (1991).
Song, B. et al. Modeling canopy structure and heterogeneity across scales: from crowns to canopy. For. Ecol. Manage. 96, 217–229 (1997).
Zenner, E. & Peck, J. Characterizing structural conditions in mature managed red pine: spatial dependency of metrics and adequacy of plot size. For. Ecol. Manag. 257, 311–320 (2009).
Pommerening, A. & Uria-Diez, J. Do large forest trees tend towards high species mingling? Ecol. Inform. 42 (2017).
Wang, H., Peng, H., Hui, G., Hu, Y. & Zhao, Z. Large trees are surrounded by more heterospecific neighboring trees in Korean pine broad-leaved natural forests. Sci. Rep. 8, 9149 (2018).
Hubbell, S. P., Ahumada, J. A., Condit, R. & Foster, R. B. Local neighborhood effects on long-term survival of individual trees in a neotropical forest. Ecol. Res. 16, 859–875 (2001).
Stoll, P. & Newbery, D. M. Evidence of species-specific neighborhood effects in the dipterocarpaceae of a bornean rain forest. Ecology 86, 3048–3062 (2005).
Pillay, T. & Ward, D. Spatial pattern analysis and competition between Acacia karroo trees in humid savannas. Plant Ecol. 213 (2012).
Fueldner, K., Sattler, S., Zucchini, W. & Gadow, K. V. Modelling person-specific tree selection probabilities in a thinning. Allgemeine Forst Und Jagdzeitung (1996).
Zenner, E. & Hibbs, D. A new method for modeling the heterogeneity of forest structure. For. Ecol. Manag. 129 (2000).
Pommerening, A. Approaches to quantifying forest structures. Forestry 75(3), 305–324 (2002).
Beckschäfer, P. et al. Enhanced structural complexity index: an improved index for describing forest structural complexity. Open J. For. 3, 23–29 (2013).
Kint, V., van Meirvenne, M., Nachtergale, L., Geudens, G. & Lust, N. Spatial methods for quantifying forest stand structure development: a comparison between nearest-neighbor indices and variogram analysis. For. Sci. 49, 36–49 (2003).
Clark, P. J. & Evans, F. C. Distance to nearest neighbor as a measure of spatial relationships in populations. Ecology 35, 445–453 (1954).
Ripley, B. D. Spatial Statistics (Wiley, New York, 1981).
Ripley, B. D. Modelling spatial patterns. J. R. Stat. Soc. 39(2), 172–212 (1977).
Pommerening, A. & Grabarnik, P. Individual-Based Methods in Forest Ecology and Management (Springer, Berlin, 2019).
Gadow, K., Albert, M. & Hui, G. Das Winkelmaß – ein Strukturparameter zur beschreibung der Individualverteilung in Waldbeständen. Centralblatt für das gesamte Forstwesen 115(1), 1–10 (1998).
Aguirre, O., Hui, G., Gadow, K. v. & Jiménez, J. An analysis of spatial forest structure using neighbourhood-based variables. For. Ecol. Manag. 183, 137–145 (2003).
Hui, G. & Gadow, K. Das Winkelmass – Theoretische Überlegungen zum optimalen Standardwinkel. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung 173(9), 173–177 (2002).
Pommerening, A. Evaluating structural indices by reversing forest structural analysis. For. Ecol. Manage. 224, 266–277 (2006).
Li, Y., Hui, G., Zhao, Z., Hu, Y. & Adler, P. The bivariate distribution characteristics of spatial structure in natural Korean pine broad-leaved forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 23 (2012).
Graz, F. P. Spatial diversity of dry savanna woodlands. Assessing the spatial diversity of a dry savanna woodland stand in northern Namibia using neighbourhood-based measures. Biodivers. Conserv. 00, 1–16 (2004).
Pastorella, F. & Paletto, A. Stand structure indices as tools to support forest management: an application in Trentino forests (Italy). J. For. Sci. 59, 159–168 (2013).
Zhao, Z. et al. Testing the significance of different tree spatial distribution patterns based on the Uniform Angle Index. Can. J. For. Res. 44(11), 1417–1425 (2014).
Zhang, G. et al. Composition of basal area in natural forests based on the uniform angle index. Ecol. Inform. 45, 1–8 (2018).
Stiell, W. How uniformity of tree distribution affects stand growth. For. Chron. 54, 156–158 (1978).
Jay, A., Nichols, J. & Vanclay, J. Social and ecological issues for private native forestry in north-eastern New South Wales Australia. Small Scale For. 6, 115–126 (2007).
Zhang, G. et al. Designing near-natural planting patterns for plantation forests in China. For. Ecosyst. 6, 137 (2019).
Moeur, M. Characterising spatial patterns of trees using stem-mapped data. For. Sci. 39, 756–775 (1993).
Stohlgren, T. Spatial patterns of giant sequoia (Sequoiadendrongiganteum) in two sequoia groves in Sequoia National Park California. Can. J. For. Res. 23, 120–132 (2011).
Pommerening, A. & Grabarnik, P. Individual-based Methods in Forest Ecology and Management (2019).
Clark, P. & Evans, F. Distance to nearest neighbor as a measure of spatial relations. Ecology 35, 445–453 (1954).
Assunçáo, R. Testing spatial randomness by means of angle. Biometrics 50, 531–537 (1994).
Corral-Rivas JJ. PhD thesis. University of Göttingen (2006).
Hui, G., Zhang, G., Zhao, Z. & Yang, A. Methods of forest structure research: a review. Curr. For. Rep. 5(3), 142–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40725-019-00090-7 (2019).
Gadow, K., Hui, G. & Albert, M. Das Winkelmaß – Ein Strukturparameter zur Beschreibung der Individualverteilung in Waldbeständen. Centralblatt für das Gesamte Forstwesen 115, 1–10 (1998).
Wang, H. et al. The influence of sampling unit size and spatial arrangement patterns on neighborhood-based spatial structure analyses of forest stands. For. Syst. 25, e056 (2016).
Kraft, G. Beiträge zur Lehre von den Durchforstungen, Schlagstellungen und Lichtungshieben, Vol. 154 (Klindworth’s Verlag, Hanover, 1884).
Röhrig, E. & Gussone, H. A. Waldbau auf Ökologischer Grundlage: Zweiter Band (Hamburg, Paul Parey, 1982).
Hawley, R. C. & Smith, M. D. The practice of silviculture. Ecology 17(1), 172 (1936).
Larsen, J. B. & Nielsen, A. B. Nature-based forest management—Where are we going?. For. Ecol. Manag. 238, 107–117 (2007).
Ajani, J. The Forest Wars (Melbourne University, Melbourne, 2007).
Nichols, J. D., Bristow, M. & Vanclay, J. K. Mixed-species plantations: prospects and challenges. For. Ecol. Manag. 233, 383–390 (2006).
Carnus, J.-M. et al. Planted forests and biodiversity. J. For. 104, 65–77 (2006).
Gadow, K. V. & Hui, G. Y. Characterizing forest spatial structure and diversity Institute of Forest Management, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 5, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany Published in: Sustainable Forestry in Temperate Regions; Proc. of an international workshop organized at the University of Lund, Sweden: 20–30.
Source: Ecology - nature.com
