Dimitrov, D., Nogués-Bravo, D. & Scharff, N. Why do tropical mountains support exceptionally high biodiversity? The eastern arc mountains and the drivers of saintpaulia diversity. PLoS One 7, e48908 (2012).
Google Scholar
Spehn, E. & Körner, C. A Global Assessment of Mountain Biodiversity and its Function, vol. 23, 393–400 (2005).
Merckx, V. S. F. T. et al. Evolution of endemism on a young tropical mountain. Nature 524, 347–350 (2015).
Google Scholar
Mengist, W., Soromessa, T. & Legese, G. Ecosystem services research in mountainous regions: A systematic literature review on current knowledge and research gaps. Sci. Total Environ. 702, 134581 (2020).
Google Scholar
Gleeson, E. H. et al. Mountains of our future earth: defining priorities for mountain research: A synthesis from the 2015 Perth III conference. Mt. Res. Dev. 36, 537–548 (2016).
Jacob, M. et al. Land use and cover dynamics since 1964 in the Afro-Alpine vegetation belt: Lib Amba Mountain in North Ethiopia. Land Degrad. Dev. 27, 641–653 (2016).
Dhakal, B. et al. Impacts of cardamom cultivation on montane forest ecosystems in Sri Lanka. For. Ecol. Manag. 274, 151–160 (2012).
Thijs, K. W. et al. Contrasting cloud forest restoration potential between plantations of different exotic tree species. Restor. Ecol. 22, 472–479 (2014).
Long, M. S. et al. Impact of nonnative feral pig removal on soil structure and nutrient availability in Hawaiian tropical montane wet forests. Biol. Invasions 19, 749–763 (2017).
Elgar, A. T., Freebody, K., Pohlman, C. L., Shoo, L. P. & Catterall, C. P. Overcoming barriers to seedling regeneration during forest restoration on tropical pasture land and the potential value of woody weeds. Front. Plant Sci. 5, 200 (2014).
Google Scholar
Rojas-Botero, S., Solorza-Bejarano, J., Kollmann, J. & Teixeira, L. H. Nucleation increases understory species and functional diversity in early tropical forest restoration. Ecol. Eng. 158, 106031 (2020).
Hooper, E., Legendre, P. & Condit, R. Barriers to forest regeneration of deforested and abandoned land in Panama. J. Appl. Ecol. 42, 1165–1174 (2005).
Krishnaswamy, J., John, R. & Joseph, S. Consistent response of vegetation dynamics to recent climate change in tropical mountain regions. Glob. Change Biol. 20, 203–215 (2013).
Google Scholar
Soh, M. C. K. et al. Impacts of habitat degradation on tropical montane biodiversity and ecosystem services: A systematic map for identifying future research priorities. Front. For. Glob. Change 2, 1–18 (2019).
Tovar, C., Arnillas, C. A., Cuesta, F. & Buytaert, W. Diverging responses of tropical andean biomes under future climate conditions. PLoS One 8, e63634 (2013).
Google Scholar
Helmer, E. H. et al. Neotropical cloud forests and páramo to contract and dry from declines in cloud immersion and frost. PLoS One 14, e0213155 (2019).
Google Scholar
Hall, J., Burgess, N. D., Lovett, J., Mbilinyi, B. & Gereau, R. E. Conservation implications of deforestation across an elevational gradient in the Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania. Biol. Conserv. 142, 2510–2521 (2009).
Christmann, T. & Oliveras, I. Nature of alpine ecosystems in tropical mountains of South America. in Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes 1–10 (Elsevier Inc., 2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12481-9
Dixon, A. P., Faber-Langendoen, D., Josse, C., Morrison, J. & Loucks, C. J. Distribution mapping of world grassland types. J. Biogeogr. 41, 2003–2019 (2014).
Young, K. R. & León, B. Tree-line changes along the Andes: Implications of spatial patterns and dynamics. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 362, 263–272 (2007).
Harsch, M. A. & Bader, M. Y. Treeline form—A potential key to understanding treeline dynamics. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 20, 582–596 (2011).
Bruijnzeel, L. A., Mulligan, M. & Scatena, F. N. Hydrometeorology of tropical montane cloud forests: Emerging patterns. Hydrol. Process. 25, 465–498 (2011).
Google Scholar
Kessler, M. & Kluge, J. Diversity and endemism in tropical montane forests—From patterns to processes. Tropical Mountain Forest: Patterns and Processes in a Biodiversity Hotspot, vol. 2 (2010).
Aide, T. M. & Grau, H. R. Globalization, migration, and Latin American ecosystems. Science 305, 1915–1917 (2004).
Google Scholar
Bender, O. Abandoned altitudes? Decrease and expansion of grassland in the Hinterland of Popayán, Southern Colombian Andes. J. Mt. Sci. 12, 123–133 (2015).
Zhang, B., Mo, S., Tan, T., Xiao, F. & Wu, H. Urbanization and De-urbanization in mountain regions of China. Mt. Res. Dev. 24, 206–209 (2004).
Di Sacco, A. et al. Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits. Glob. Change Biol. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15498 (2021).
Google Scholar
International Union for Conservation of Nature. The Bonn Challenge | Bonchallenge. Iucn (2020).
Society for Ecological Restoration. The SER primer on ecological restoration. Sci. Policy Work. Gr. 2002, 9 (2002).
Holl, K. D. Primer of Ecological Restoration (Island Press, 2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-020-00621-w.
Google Scholar
Chazdon, R. REVIEW: Restoring tropical forests: A practical guide. Ecol. Restor. 33, 118–119 (2015).
Chazdon, R. L. Tropical forest recovery: Legacies of human impact and natural disturbances. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 6, 51–71 (2003).
Ghazoul, J. & Chazdon, R. Degradation and recovery in changing forest landscapes: A multiscale conceptual framework. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 42, 161–188 (2017).
Meli, P. et al. A global review of past land use, climate, and active vs passive restoration effects on forest recovery. PLoS One 12, 1–17 (2017).
Holl, K. D. Restoration of tropical forests. Restor. Ecol. New Front. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118223130.ch9 (2012).
Google Scholar
Meli, P. Tropical forest restoration. Twenty years of academic research. Interciencia 28, 581 (2003).
Venkatesh, B., Lakshman, N. & Purandara, B. K. Hydrological impacts of afforestation—A review of research in India. J. For. Res. 25, 37–42 (2014).
Aide, T. M., Ruiz-Jaen, M. C. & Grau, H. R. What is the state of tropical montane cloud forest restoration? Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: science for conservation and management. For. Ecol. Manag. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778384.010 (2011).
Google Scholar
Guariguata, M. R. Restoring tropical montane forests. Forest Restoration in Landscapes: Beyond Planting Trees (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29112-1_43
Mengist, W., Soromessa, T. & Legese, G. Method for conducting systematic literature review and meta-analysis for environmental science research. MethodsX 7, 100777 (2020).
Google Scholar
Arasumani, M. et al. Not seeing the grass for the trees: Timber plantations and agriculture shrink tropical montane grassland by two-thirds over four decades in the Palani Hills, a Western Ghats Sky Island. PLoS One 13, e0190003 (2018).
Google Scholar
Raman, T. R. S., Mudappa, D. & Kapoor, V. Restoring rainforest fragments: survival of mixed-native species seedlings under contrasting site conditions in the Western Ghats, India. Restor. Ecol. 17, 137–147 (2009).
Körner, C. et al. A global inventory of mountains for bio-geographical applications. Alp. Bot. 127, 1–15 (2017).
Lewin-Koh, N. J. et al. maptools: Tools for reading and handling spatial objects. R package version 0.8-10. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=maptools (2011).
R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2019). https://www.R-project.org/
Wickham, H. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis (Springer, 2016). ISBN 978-3-319-24277-4. https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org
Srinivasan, M. P., Bhatia, S. & Shenoy, K. Vegetation-environment relationships in a South Asian tropical montane grassland ecosystem: Restoration implications. Trop. Ecol. 56, 201–217 (2015).
Le Stradic, S., Buisson, E. & Fernandes, G. W. Restoration of Neotropical grasslands degraded by quarrying using hay transfer. Appl. Veg. Sci. 17, 482–492 (2014).
De De Vasconcelos, M. F. O que são campos rupestres e campos de altitude nos topos de montanha do Leste do Brasil?. Rev. Bras. Bot. 34, 241–246 (2011).
Seddon, N. et al. Getting the message right on nature-based solutions to climate change. Glob. Change Biol. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15513 (2021).
Google Scholar
Home | Trillion Trees (2020).
Abadín, J. et al. Successional dynamics of soil characteristics in a long fallow agricultural system of the high tropical Andes. Soil Biol. Biochem. 34, 1739–1748 (2002).
Abreu, Z., Llambí, L. D. & Sarmiento, L. Sensitivity of soil restoration indicators during páramo succession in the high tropical andes: Chronosequence and permanent plot approaches. Restor. Ecol. 17, 619–627 (2009).
Bueno, A. & Llambí, L. D. Facilitation and edge effects influence vegetation regeneration in old-fields at the tropical Andean forest line. Appl. Veg. Sci. 18, 613–623 (2015).
Sarmiento, L., Llambí, L. D., Escalona, A. & Marquez, N. Vegetation patterns, regeneration rates and divergence in an old-field succession of the high tropical Andes. Plant Ecol. 166, 63–74 (2003).
Sarmiento, L., Smith, J. K., Márquez, N., Escalona, A. & Erazo, M. C. Constraints for the restoration of tropical alpine vegetation on degraded slopes of the Venezuelan Andes. Plant Ecol. Divers. 8, 277–291 (2015).
Sarmiento, L. & Bottner, P. Carbon and nitrogen dynamics in two soils with different fallow times in the high tropical Andes: Indications for fertility restoration. Appl. Soil Ecol. 19, 79–89 (2002).
Sarmiento, L., Abadín, J., González-Prieto, S. & Carballas, T. Assessing and modeling the role of the native legume Lupinus meridanus in fertility restoration in a heterogeneous mountain environment of the tropical Andes. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 159, 29–39 (2012).
Hilário, R. R., Castro, S. A. B., Ker, F. T. O. & Fernandes, G. Unexpected effects of pigeon-peas (Cajanus cajan) in the restoration of rupestrian fields [Efeito Inesperado do Feijão-Guandu (Cajanus cajan) na Restauração de Campos Rupestres]. Planta Daninha 29, 717–723 (2011).
Le Stradic, S., Buisson, E., Negreiros, D., Campagne, P. & Wilson Fernandes, G. The role of native woody species in the restoration of Campos Rupestres in quarries. Appl. Veg. Sci. 17, 109–120 (2014).
Arasumani, M., Bunyan, M. & Robin, V. V. Opportunities and challenges in using remote sensing for invasive tree species management, and in the identification of restoration sites in tropical montane grasslands. J. Environ. Manag. 280, 111759 (2020).
Sarmiento, F. O. Arrested succession in pastures hinders regeneration of Tropandean forests and shreds mountain landscapes. Environ. Conserv. 24, 14–23 (1997).
Wesche, K. et al. Recruitment of trees at tropical alpine treelines: Erica in Africa versus Polylepis in South America. Plant Ecol. Divers. 1, 35–46 (2008).
Middendorp, R. S., Pérez, A. J., Molina, A., Lambin, E. F. & Pérez Castañeda, A. J. The potential to restore native woody plant richness and composition in a reforesting landscape: A modeling approach in the Ecuadorian Andes. Landsc. Ecol. 31, 1581–1599 (2016).
De Guevara, I.H.-L., Rojas-Soto, O. R., López-Barrera, F., Puebla-Olivares, F. & Díaz-Castelazo, C. Seed dispersal by birds in a cloud forest landscape in central Veracruz, Mexico: Its role in passive restoration. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 85, 89–100 (2012).
Lira-Noriega, A., Guevara, S., Laborde, J. & Sanchez-Rios, G. Floristic composition in pastures of Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico. ACTA Bot. Mex. 80, 59–87 (2007).
Muniz-Castro, M. A., Williams-Linera, G. & Benayas, J. M. R. Distance effect from cloud forest fragments on plant community structure in abandoned pastures in Veracruz, Mexico. J. Trop. Ecol. 22, 431–440 (2006).
Räger, N., Williams-Linera, G. & Huth, A. Modeling the dynamics of tropical montane cloud forest in central Veracruz, Mexico. in Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and Management 584–594 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778384.063
Violi, H. A. et al. Disturbance changes arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal phenology and soil glomalin concentrations but not fungal spore composition in montane rainforests in Veracruz and Chiapas, Mexico. For. Ecol. Manag. 254, 276–290 (2008).
Williams-Linera, G., Alvarez-Aquino, C. & Pedraza, R. A. Forest restoration in the tropical montane cloud forest belt of central veracruz, Mexico. Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and Management (2011). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778384.067
Cole, R. J., Litton, C. M., Koontz, M. J. & Loh, R. K. Vegetation recovery 16 years after feral pig removal from a wet Hawaiian forest. Biotropica 44, 463–471 (2012).
Cole, R. J. & Litton, C. M. Vegetation response to removal of non-native feral pigs from Hawaiian tropical montane wet forest. Biol. Invasions 16, 125–140 (2014).
Gould, R. K., Mooney, H., Nelson, L., Shallenberger, R. & Daily, G. C. Restoring native forest understory: The influence of ferns and light in a Hawaiian experiment. Sustainability 5, 1317–1339 (2013).
Hart, P. J. Tree growth and age in an ancient Hawaiian wet forest: Vegetation dynamics at two spatial scales. J. Trop. Ecol. 26, 1–11 (2010).
Ibanez, T. & Hart, P. J. Spatial patterns of tree recruitment in a montane Hawaiian wet forest after cattle removal and pig population control. Appl. Veg. Sci. 23, 197–209 (2020).
Pinto, J. R., Davis, A. S., Leary, J. J. K. & Aghai, M. M. Stocktype and grass suppression accelerate the restoration trajectory of Acacia koa in Hawaiian montane ecosystems. New For. 46, 855–867 (2015).
Hylander, K. & Nemomissa, S. Complementary roles of home gardens and exotic tree plantations as alternative habitats for plants of the Ethiopian montane rainforest [Roles complementarios de jardines doḿesticos y plantaciones de ’arboles ex́oticos como h́abitats alternativos para plan. Conserv. Biol. 23, 400–409 (2009).
Google Scholar
Roose, E. & Ndayizigiye, F. Agroforestry, water and soil fertility management to fight erosion in tropical mountains of Rwanda. Soil Technol. 11, 109–119 (1997).
Uhlig, S. K. Tropical mountain ecology in Ethiopia as a basis for conservation, management and restoration. Trop. For. Transit. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-7256-0_8 (1992).
Google Scholar
Carilla, J. & Grau, H. R. 150 years of tree establishment, land use and climate change in Montane grasslands, Northwest Argentina. Biotropica 42, 49–58 (2010).
Camelo, O. J., Urrego, L. E. & Orrego, S. A. Environmental and socioeconomic drivers of woody vegetation recovery in a human-modified landscape in the Rio Grande basin (Colombian Andes). Restor. Ecol. 25, 912–921 (2017).
Wilson, S. J., Coomes, O. T. & Dallaire, C. O. The `ecosystem service scarcity path’ to forest recovery: A local forest transition in the Ecuadorian Andes. Reg. Environ. Change 19, 2437–2451 (2019).
Middendorp, R. S., Pérez, A. J., Molina, A. & Lambin, E. F. The potential to restore native woody plant richness and composition in a reforesting landscape: A modeling approach in the Ecuadorian Andes. Landsc. Ecol. 31, 1581–1599 (2016).
Bingli, L., Weide, Z. & Rongyuan, Z. The rebirth of tropical rainforest – ecological restoration planning for Sanda Mountain of Xishuangbanna, China. Landsc. Archit. Front. 8, 108–125 (2020).
Byers, A. C. Alpine habitat conservation and restoration in tropical and sub-tropical high mountains. Routledge Handb. Ecol. Environ. Restor. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315685977 (2017).
Google Scholar
Guariguata, M. R. Restoring tropical montane forests. in Forest Restoration in Landscapes: Beyond Planting Trees 298–302 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29112-1_43
González-Espinosa, M. et al. Restoration of forest ecosystems in fragmented landscapes of temperate and montane tropical Latin America. in Biodiversity Loss and Conservation in Fragmented Forest Landscapes: The Forests of Montane Mexico and Temperate South America 335–369 (2007).
Newmark, W. D., Jenkins, C. N., Pimm, S. L., McNeally, P. B. & Halley, J. M. Targeted habitat restoration can reduce extinction rates in fragmented forests. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114, 9635–9640 (2017).
Google Scholar
Holl, K. D. Research directions in tropical forest restoration. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 102, 237–250 (2017).
Roose, E., Ndayizigiye, F. & Sekayange, L. Agroforestry and land husbandry in Rwanda. How to restore the acid soils productivity in tropical mountains densely populated? [L’agroforesterie et la GCES au Rwanda. Comment restaurer la productivite des terres acides dans une region tropicale de montagn. Cah. ORSTOM Ser. Pedol. 28, 327–349 (1993).
Diego Leon, J., Isabel Gonzalez, M. & Fernando Gallardo, J. Biogeochemical cycles in natural forest and conifer plantations in the high mountains of Colombia. Rev. Biol. Trop. 59, 1883–1894 (2011).
Chazdon, R. L. et al. Erratum: Fostering natural forest regeneration on former agricultural land through economic and policy interventions. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 043002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab79e6 (2020).
Google Scholar
Miranda-Castro, L. & Padrón, S. From the mountains to the sea: Restoring shaded coffee plantations to protect tropical coastal ecosystems. in Proceedings of MTS/IEEE OCEANS, 2005 vol. 2005 662–669 (2005).
Hakim, L. & Miyakawa, H. Integrating ecosystem restoration and development of recreation sites in degraded tropical mountain areas in East Java, Indonesia. AIP Conf. Proc. 2019 (2018).
Gilroy, J. J. et al. Cheap carbon and biodiversity co-benefits from forest regeneration in a hotspot of endemism. Nat. Clim. Change 4, 503–507 (2014).
Google Scholar
Räger, N., Williams-Linera, G. & Huth, A. Modeling the dynamics of tropical montane cloud forest in central Veracruz, Mexico. Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and Management (2011). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778384.063
Chen, T.-S., Lin, C.-Y., Ho, S.-H., Lin, C.-Y. & Yang, Y.-L. Evaluation of priority order for the landslide treatment using biodiversity index in a watershed. J. Chin. Soil Water Conserv. 45, 119–127 (2014).
Liu, H., Yi, Y., Blagodatsky, S. & Cadisch, G. Impact of forest cover and conservation agriculture on sediment export: A case study in a montane reserve, south-western China. Sci. Total Environ. 702, 134802 (2020).
Google Scholar
Crespo, P. et al. Land use change impacts on the hydrology of wet Andean paramo ecosystems. in Status and Perspectives of Hydrology in Small Basins (Proceedings of the Workshop held at Goslar-Hahnenklee, Germany, 30 March–2 April 2009) (IAHS, 2010). doi:https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.5137.6320
Muñoz-Villers, L. E. & McDonnell, J. J. Land use change effects on runoff generation in a humid tropical montane cloud forest region. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 17, 3543–3560 (2013).
Google Scholar
Calle, Z., Henao-Gallego, N., Giraldo, C. & Armbrecht, I. A comparison of vegetation and ground-dwelling ants in abandoned and restored gullies and landslide surfaces in the Western Colombian Andes. Restor. Ecol. 21, 729–735 (2013).
Posada, J. M., Mitche, T. & Cavelier, J. Cattle and weedy shrubs as restoration tools of tropical montane rainforest. Restor. Ecol. 8, 370–379 (2000).
Lemenih, M. & Teketay, D. Changes in soil seed bank composition and density following deforestation and subsequent cultivation of a tropical dry Afromontane forest in Ethiopia. Trop. Ecol. 47, 1–12 (2006).
Galindo, V., Calle, Z., Chará, J. & Armbrecht, I. Facilitation by pioneer shrubs for the ecological restoration of riparian forests in the Central Andes of Colombia. Restor. Ecol. 25, 731–737 (2017).
Slocum, M. G., Aide, T. M., Zimmerman, J. K. & Navarro, L. A strategy for restoration of montane forest in anthropogenic fern thickets in the Dominican Republic. Restor. Ecol. 14, 526–536 (2006).
Rurangwa, M. L., Matthews, T. J., Niyigaba, P., Tobias, J. A. & Whittaker, R. J. Assessing tropical forest restoration after fire using birds as indicators: An afrotropical case study. For. Ecol. Manag. 10, 118765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118765 (2020).
Google Scholar
Gunaratne, A. M. T. A., Gunatilleke, C. V. S., Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., Madawala Weerasinghe, H. M. S. P. & Burslem, D. F. R. P. Barriers to tree seedling emergence on human-induced grasslands in Sri Lanka. J. Appl. Ecol. 47, 157–165 (2010).
Le Stradic, S., Fernandes, G. W. & Buisson, E. No recovery of campo rupestre grasslands after gravel extraction: implications for conservation and restoration. Restor. Ecol. 26, S151–S159 (2018).
Sanchez-De Leon, Y., Zou, X., Borges, S. & Ruan, H. Recovery of native earthworms in abandoned tropical pastures. Conserv. Biol. 17, 999–1006 (2003).
Wilms, J. & Kappelle, M. Frugivorous birds, habitat preference and seed dispersal in a fragmented Costa Rican montane oak forest landscape. in Ecology and conservation of neotropical montane oak forests 309–324 (Springer, 2006).
Shoo, L. P., Storlie, C., Vanderwal, J., Little, J. & Williams, S. E. Targeted protection and restoration to conserve tropical biodiversity in a warming world. Glob. Change Biol. 17, 186–193 (2011).
Google Scholar
Edwards, D. P., Massam, M. R., Haugaasen, T. & Gilroy, J. J. Tropical secondary forest regeneration conserves high levels of avian phylogenetic diversity. Biol. Conserv. 209, 432–439 (2017).
Gutierrez-Chacon, C., Valderrama-A, C. & Klein, A.-M. Biological corridors as important habitat structures for maintaining bees in a tropical fragmented landscape. J. Insect Conserv. 24, 187–197 (2020).
Kattan, G. H., Correa, D., Escobar, F. & Medina, C. Leaf-litter arthropods in restored forests in the Colombian Andes: A comparison between secondary forest and tree plantations. Restor. Ecol. 14, 95–102 (2006).
Davies, R. W., Edwards, D. P. & Edwards, F. A. Secondary tropical forests recover dung beetle functional diversity and trait composition. Anim. Conserv. 23, 617–627 (2020).
Marian, F. et al. Conversion of Andean montane forests into plantations: Effects on soil characteristics, microorganisms, and microarthropods. Biotropica https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.12813 (2020).
Google Scholar
Brancalion, P. H. S. & Holl, K. D. Functional composition trajectory: A resolution to the debate between Suganuma, Durigan, and Reid. Restor. Ecol. 24, 1–3 (2016).
Matos, I. S., Eller, C. B., Oliveras, I., Mantuano, D. & Rosado, B. H. P. Three eco-physiological strategies of response to drought maintain the form and function of a tropical montane grassland. J. Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13481 (2020).
Google Scholar
Eller, C. B., Lima, A. L. & Oliveira, R. S. Cloud forest trees with higher foliar water uptake capacity and anisohydric behavior are more vulnerable to drought and climate change. New Phytol. 211, 489–501 (2016).
Google Scholar
Barnes, A. D. & Chapman, H. M. Dispersal traits determine passive restoration trajectory of a Nigerian montane forest. Acta Oecol. 56, 32–40 (2014).
Google Scholar
Dimson, M. & Gillespie, T. W. Trends in active restoration of tropical dry forest: Methods, metrics, and outcomes. For. Ecol. Manage. 467, 118150 (2020).
Gann, G. D. et al. International principles and standards for the practice of ecological restoration. Second edition. Restor. Ecol. 27, S1–S46 (2019).
Wilson, S. J. & Rhemtulla, J. M. Acceleration and novelty: Community restoration speeds recovery and transforms species composition in Andean cloud forest. Ecol. Appl. 26, 203–218 (2016).
Google Scholar
Muñiz-Castro, M. A. et al. Distance effect from cloud forest fragments on plant community structure in abandoned pastures in Veracruz, Mexico. J. Trop. Ecol. 22, 431–440 (2006).
Van Do, T., Osawa, A. & Thang, N. T. Recovery process of a mountain forest after shifting cultivation in Northwestern Vietnam. For. Ecol. Manag. 259, 1650–1659 (2010).
Joshua Atondo-Bueno, E., Bonilla-Moheno, M. & Lopez-Barrera, F. Cost-efficiency analysis of seedling introduction vs. direct seeding of Oreomunnea mexicana for secondary forest enrichment. For. Ecol. Manag. 409, 399–406 (2018).
Trujillo-Miranda, A. L., Toledo-Aceves, T., Lopez-Barrera, F. & Guenter, S. Tree diversity and timber productivity in planted forests: Pinus patula versus mixed cloud forest species. New For. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-020-09787-1 (2020).
Google Scholar
Gallegos, S. C., Hensen, I., Saavedra, F. & Schleuning, M. Bracken fern facilitates tree seedling recruitment in tropical fire-degraded habitats. For. Ecol. Manag. 337, 135–143 (2015).
Peláez-Silva, J. A., León-Peláez, J. D. & Lema-Tapias, A. Conifer tree plantations for land rehabilitation: An ecological-functional evaluation. Restor. Ecol. 27, 607–615 (2019).
Ortega-Pieck, A., López-Barrera, F., Ramírez-Marcial, N. & García-Franco, J. G. Early seedling establishment of two tropical montane cloud forest tree species: The role of native and exotic grasses. For. Ecol. Manag. 261, 1336–1343 (2011).
Muniz-Castro, M.-A. et al. Restoring montane cloud forest: Establishment of three Fagaceae species in the old fields of central Veracruz, Mexico. Restor. Ecol. 23, 26–33 (2015).
Zhang, Z. H., Hu, G., Zhu, J. D. & Ni, J. Stand structure, woody species richness and composition of subtropical karst forests in Maolan, south-west China. J. Trop. For. Sci. 24, 498–506 (2012).
Garcia-De La Cruz, Y., Lopez-Barrera, F. & MariaRamos-Prado, J. Germination and seedling emergence of four endangered oak species. Madera y Bosques 22, 77–87 (2016).
Bare, M. C. & Ashton, M. S. Growth of native tree species planted in montane reforestation projects in the Colombian and Ecuadorian Andes differs among site and species. New For. 47, 333–355 (2016).
Borja, P., Molina, A., Govers, G. & Vanacker, V. Check dams and afforestation reducing sediment mobilization in active gully systems in the Andean mountains. CATENA 165, 42–53 (2018).
Gomez-Ruiz, P. A., Saenz-Romero, C. & Lindig-Cisneros, R. Early performance of two tropical dry forest species after assisted migration to pine-oak forests at different altitudes: strategic response to climate change. J. For. Res. 31, 1215–1223 (2020).
Toledo-Aceves, T. & Del-Val, E. Do plant-herbivore interactions persist in assisted migration plantings? Restor. Ecol. 29, (2020).
Urgiles, N. et al. Application of mycorrhizal roots improves growth of tropical tree seedlings in the nursery: A step towards reforestation with native species in the Andes of Ecuador. New For. 38, 229–239 (2009).
Braasch, M., Garcia-Barrios, L., Ramirez-Marcial, N., Huber-Sannwald, E. & Cortina-Villar, S. Can cattle grazing substitute fire for maintaining appreciated pine savannas at the frontier of a montane forest biosphere-reserve?. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 250, 59–71 (2017).
Hernandez-Ladron De Guevara, I., Rojas-Soto, O. R., Lopez-Barrera, F., Puebla-Olivares, F. & Diaz-Castelazo, C. Seed dispersal by birds in a cloud forest landscape in central Veracruz, Mexico: Its role in passive restoration. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 85, 89–100 (2012).
Holl, K. D., Loik, M. E., Lin, E. H. V. & Samuels, I. A. Tropical montane forest restoration in Costa Rica: Overcoming barriers to dispersal and establishment. Restor. Ecol. 8, 339–349 (2000).
Derroire, G., Coe, R. & Healey, J. R. Isolated trees as nuclei of regeneration in tropical pastures: Testing the importance of niche-based and landscape factors. J. Veg. Sci. 27, 679–691 (2016).
Rhoades, C. C., Eckert, G. E. & Coleman, D. C. Effect of pasture trees on soil nitrogen and organic matter: Implications for tropical montane forest restoration. Restor. Ecol. 6, 262–270 (1998).
Sheldon, K. S. & Nadkarni, N. M. The use of pasture trees by birds in a tropical montane landscape in Monteverde, Costa Rica. J. Trop. Ecol. 29, 459–462 (2013).
Sprenkle-Hyppolite, S. D., Latimer, A. M., Young, T. P. & Rice, K. J. Landscape factors and restoration practices associated with initial reforestation success in Haiti. Ecol. Restor. 34, 306–316 (2016).
Pang, C.-C., Ma, X.K.-K., Hung, T.T.-H. & Hau, B.C.-H. Early ecological succession on landslide trails, Hong Kong, China. Ecoscience 25, 153–161 (2018).
Scowcroft, P. G. & Jeffrey, J. Potential significance of frost, topographic relief, and Acacia koa stands to restoration of mesic Hawaiian forests on abandoned rangeland. For. Ecol. Manag. 114, 447–458 (1999).
Zahawi, R. A. Establishment and growth of living fence species: An overlooked tool for the restoration of degraded areas in the tropics. Restor. Ecol. 13, 92–102 (2005).
Dhakal, B., Pinard, M. A., Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., Gunatilleke, C. V. S. & Burslem, D. F. R. P. Strategies for restoring tree seedling recruitment in high conservation value tropical montane forests underplanted with cardamom. Appl. Veg. Sci. 18, 121–133 (2015).
Wilson, S. J. & Coomes, O. T. ‘Crisis restoration’ in post-frontier tropical environments: Replanting cloud forests in the Ecuadorian Andes. J. Rural Stud. 67, 152–165 (2019).
Pethiyagoda, R. S. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K. Endangered anurans in a novel forest in the highlands of Sri Lanka. Wildl. Res. 39, 641–648 (2012).
Del Castillo, R. F. & Blanco-Macías, A. Secondary succession under a slash-and-burn regime in a tropical montane cloud forest: soil and vegetation characteristics. Biodivers. loss Conserv. Fragm. For. landscapes. For. Mont. Mex. Temp. South Am. CABI, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK 158–180 (2007).
Bautista-Cruz, A., Del Castillo, R. F., Etchevers-Barra, J. D., Gutiérrez-Castorena, M. D. C. & Baez, A. Selection and interpretation of soil quality indicators for forest recovery after clearing of a tropical montane cloud forest in Mexico. For. Ecol. Manag. 277, 74–80 (2012).
Sarmiento, L., Llambí, L. D., Escalona, A. & Marquez, N. Vegetation patterns, regeneration rates and divergence in an old-field succession of the high tropical Andes. Plant Ecol. 166, 145–156 (2003).
Raman, T. R. S. Effects of habitat structure and adjacent habitats on birds in tropical rainforest fragments and shaded plantations in the Western Ghats, India. Biodivers. Conserv. 15, 1577–1607 (2006).
Gunaratne, A. M. T. A., Gunatilleke, C. V. S., Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., Madawala, H. M. S. P. & Burslem, D. F. R. P. Overcoming ecological barriers to tropical lower montane forest succession on anthropogenic grasslands: Synthesis and future prospects. For. Ecol. Manag. 329, 340–350 (2014).
Mendoza-Vega, J., Ku-Quej, V. M., Messing, I. & Pérez-Jiménez, J. C. Effects of native tree planting on soil recovery in tropical montane cloud forests. For. Sci. 66, 700–711 (2020).
Calle, A. & Holl, K. D. Riparian forest recovery following a decade of cattle exclusion in the Colombian Andes. For. Ecol. Manag. 452, 117563 (2019).
Holl, K. D. Factors limiting tropical rain forest regeneration in abandoned pasture: Seed rain, seed germination, microclimate, and soil. Biotropica 31, 229–242 (1999).
Mullah, C. J. A., Klanderud, K., Totland, O. & Kigomo, B. Recovery of plant species richness and composition in an abandoned forest settlement area in Kenya. Restor. Ecol. 52, 77–87 (2011).
Liu, X., Lu, Y., Yang, Z. & Zhou, Y. Regeneration and development of native plant species in restored mountain forests, Hainan Island, China. Mt. Res. Dev. 34, 396–404 (2014).
Google Scholar
Gunaratne, A. M. T. A., Gunatilleke, C. V. S., Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., Weerasinghe, H. M. S. P. M. & Burslem, D. F. R. P. Release from root competition promotes tree seedling survival and growth following transplantation into human-induced grasslands in Sri Lanka. For. Ecol. Manag. 262, 229–236 (2011).
Cole, R. J., Holl, K. D., Keene, C. L. & Zahawi, R. A. Direct seeding of late-successional trees to restore tropical montane forest. For. Ecol. Manag. 261, 1590–1597 (2011).
Alvarez-Aquino, C., Williams-Linera, G. & Newton, A. C. Experimental native tree seedling establishment for the restoration of a Mexican cloud forest. Restor. Ecol. 12, 412–418 (2004).
Joshi, A. A., Ratnam, J. & Sankaran, M. Frost maintains forests and grasslands as alternate states in a montane tropical forest–grassland mosaic; But alien tree invasion and warming can disrupt this balance. J. Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13239 (2019).
Google Scholar
Singh, K. P., Mandal, T. N. & Tripathi, S. K. Patterns of restoration of soil physicochemical properties and microbial biomass in different landslide sites in the Sal forest ecosystem of Nepal Himalaya. Ecol. Eng. 17, 385–401 (2001).
Wilcke, W. et al. Soil properties on a chronosequence of landslides in montane rain forest, Ecuador. CATENA 53, 79–95 (2003).
Diaz-Garcia, J. M., Pineda, E., Lopez-Barrera, F. & Moreno, C. E. Amphibian species and functional diversity as indicators of restoration success in tropical montane forest. Biodivers. Conserv. 26, 2569–2589 (2017).
Doust, S. J., Erskine, P. D. & Lamb, D. Direct seeding to restore rainforest species: Microsite effects on the early establishment and growth of rainforest tree seedlings on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. For. Ecol. Manag. 234, 333–343 (2006).
Howorth, R. T. & Pendry, C. A. Post-cultivation secondary succession in a Venezuelan lower montane rain forest. Biodivers. Conserv. 15, 693–715 (2006).
Gomes, L. G. L., Oostra, V., Nijman, V., Cleef, A. M. & Kappelle, M. Tolerance of frugivorous birds to habitat disturbance in a tropical cloud forest. Biol. Conserv. 141, 860–871 (2008).
Cole, R. J., Holl, K. D. & Zahawi, R. A. Seed rain under tree islands planted to restore degraded lands in a tropical agricultural landscape. Ecol. Appl. 20, 1255–1269 (2010).
Google Scholar
Pérez-García, O. & del Castillo, R. F. Shifts in swidden agriculture alter the diversity of young fallows: Is the regeneration of cloud forest at stake in southern Mexico?. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 248, 162–174 (2017).
Gallegos, S. C. et al. Factors limiting montane forest regeneration in bracken-dominated habitats in the tropics. For. Ecol. Manag. 381, 168–176 (2016).
Riviere, J.-N. et al. Role of tree ferns in flowering plant settlement in the tropical montane rainforests of La Reunion (Mascarene Archipelago, Indian Ocean). Rev. D Ecol. TERRE LA VIE 63, 199–207 (2008).
Mohandass, D., Chhabra, T., Singh Pannu, R. & Beng, K. C. Recruitment of saplings in active tea plantations of the Nilgiri mountains: Implications for restoration ecology. Trop. Ecol. 57, 101–118 (2016).
Google Scholar
Wassie, A., Bongers, F., Sterck, F. J. & Teketay, D. Church forests—relics of dry afromontane forests of Northern Ethiopia: opportunities and challenges for conservation and restauration. Degrad. For. East. Africa Manag. Restor. 123–133 (2010).
Townsend, P. A. & Masters, K. L. Lattice-work corridors for climate change: A conceptual framework for biodiversity conservation and social-ecological resilience in a tropical elevational gradient. Ecol. Soc. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-07324-200201 (2015).
Google Scholar
Nogués-Bravo, D., Araújo, M. B., Errea, M. P. & Martínez-Rica, J. P. Exposure of global mountain systems to climate warming during the 21st Century. Glob. Environ. Change 17, 420–428 (2007).
Pepin, N. et al. Elevation-dependent warming in mountain regions of the world. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 424–430 (2015).
Google Scholar
Fadrique, B. et al. Widespread but heterogeneous responses of Andean forests to climate change. Nature 564, 207–212 (2018).
Google Scholar
Peters, M. K. et al. Climate–land-use interactions shape tropical mountain biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Nature 568, 88–92 (2019).
Google Scholar
Feeley, K. J. & Rehm, E. M. Downward shift of montane grasslands exemplifies the dual threat of human disturbances to cloud forest biodiversity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112, E6084–E6084 (2015).
Google Scholar
Gómez-Ruiz, P. A., Sáenz-Romero, C. & Lindig-Cisneros, R. Early performance of two tropical dry forest species after assisted migration to pine–oak forests at different altitudes: strategic response to climate change. J. For. Res. 31, 1215–1223 (2020).
Joppa, L. N. & Pfaff, A. High and far: Biases in the location of protected areas. PLoS One 4, 1–6 (2009).
von Holle, B., Yelenik, S. & Gornish, E. S. Restoration at the landscape scale as a means of mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Curr. Landsc. Ecol. Rep. 5, 85–97 (2020).
Fischer, J., Riechers, M., Loos, J., Martin-Lopez, B. & Temperton, V. M. Making the UN decade on ecosystem restoration a social-ecological endeavour. Trends Ecol. Evol. xx, 1–9 (2020).
Monitoring Task Force. Briefing note on the Task Force on Monitoring for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030 (2020).
Elliott, S. The potential for automating assisted natural regeneration of tropical forest ecosystems. Biotropica 48, 825–833 (2016).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
