Volcanic ash soil
We used commercially available Kanuma soil as volcanic ash soil (fine-grained pumice, Akagi Engei Co., Ltd.) for growth experiment 1. Kanuma soil is a fully weathered pyroclastic fall from the eruption of Mt. Akagi 44,000 years ago19. The soil contains 30.8% aluminum (allophane and imogolite) and 1.4% iron (ferrihydrite)20. For growth experiment 2, we used three natural volcanic ash soil types—immature soil of pumice (Kanuma soil, C horizon), as well as mature soils of andosol (A–B horizon) and topsoil (the surface of andosol, P to A horizon)—collected from a riverbed in Kanuma City (36°35′ N, 139°44′ E; 200 m a.s.l.), central Japan, where the vegetation is a cypress forest. This place is managed by the Kanuma Civil Engineering Office. The topsoil was collected at a depth of approximately 0–10 cm from the soil surface after removing the fallen leaves on the soil surface. The andosol layer, typically distributed at a depth of approximately 10–75 cm, was collected from a depth of approximately 10–30 cm. Below the andosol layer, the Akadama soil layer is distributed; further below, the pumice Kanuma soil is distributed. The pumice was collected approximately 50 cm under the Akadama layer.
Temporal information on soil formation was confirmed by direct radiocarbon dating of the soil samples. After removing soil carbonate with 1.0 M HCl, the total organic fraction was analyzed using an accelerator mass spectrometer (0.5MV compact AMS system, NEC) at the laboratory of radiocarbon dating, University of Tokyo. Conventional radiocarbon age after correction of isotopic fractionation with δ13C values was calibrated to a calendar date with the calibration dataset IntCal1321.
The elemental analysis of total phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon in the soil samples was performed by Createrra Inc. (http://www.createrra.co.jp/english/top.html).
Plant species
On the volcanic ash soil of Mt. Fuji, Japan’s highest volcano, vegetation in primary succession generally changes from herbaceous plants such as Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr. var. japonica to nitrogen-fixing alder plants, and finally to non-nitrogen fixing Betula ermanii Cham22,23. Hence, we used three species—F. japonica, the alder species Alnus inokumae Murai et Kusaka, and B. ermanii—owned by and grown in our research institute, Nikko Botanical Garden, for the growth experiments. Experimental research on these plants, including the collection of plant material, comply with the relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation.
Litter incubation experiment
Samples (1 g) of F. japonica litter leaves—collected upon leaf fall on an autumn day, dried at 80 °C for at least 48 h, and then crushed—were placed in cultivating tubes (n = 5). Then, 5 g of wet soil from the Nikko Botanical Garden (36°45′ N, 139°35′ E; 647 m a.s.l.) in Nikko, central Japan, was added to 500 mL of water and stirred (solution I). As inoculation, 0.1 mL of the supernatant of solution I was added to the tubes24. Considering that the amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen in the solution I were approximately 0.003 mg/L and 0.3 mg/L, respectively, they were determined to have not affected the initial value (t = 0). Next, 2 mL of water was added to the tubes, which were then kept at 30 °C. The tubes were left open to maintain an aerobic environment. The efflux of phosphorus and nitrogen from the leaves was measured every week for ten weeks. For these measurements, 5 mL of water was added and the tube was centrifuged for 10 min (solution II). The supernatant of solution II was then used for phosphorus and nitrogen measurements, and the residue was continuously kept at 30 °C.
Growth experiments
Growth experiments were conducted in an open-type greenhouse in Nikko Botanical Garden. The greenhouse is only vinyl on the ceiling and good ventilation to keep the temperature constant. The mean monthly highest and lowest temperatures and the monthly precipitation observed in the botanical garden during the cultivation period are provided in Table 1. In the growth experiments, irrigation with tap water was provided to the plants and litter leaves in the morning and evening. The phosphorus and nitrogen concentration of the tap water were approximately 0.03 mg/L and 0.25 mg/L respectively.
Growth experiment 1: Comparative experiment on the growth of plant species with and without litter
The seedlings used for the experiment were from the species F. japonica, A. inokumae, and B. ermanii. A similar seedling size was used for each plant species. Seedlings of A. inokumae coexist with N-fixing actinomycetes.
Six plants per species were collected before cultivation (t = 0) and dried in an oven at 80 °C for at least 48 h to measure the dry weight. There were four experimental groups for each species: a control (Con), a nitrogen addition (N: 10 mM NH4NO3), a phosphorus addition (P: 10 mM NaH2PO4), and a nitrogen and phosphorus addition (NP: 10 mM NH4NO3 + 10 mM NaH2PO4). Once a week, 50 mL of each nutrients was added to a 0.25-L garden pot. To verify whether the addition of litter (denoted by +) improved plant growth, litter leaves of F. japonica were placed on the soils. To verify if nutrients leached from litter sustained plant growth, we also combined nutrient and litter additions (Con+, N+, P+, NP+). When nutrients were added to the soil once a week, litter bag was removed before fertilizer application and returned after that.
To reproduce how litter is deposited and supplies nutrients on volcanic ash soil in primary succession, F. japonica litter was collected in Nikko in the autumn of 2018 and dried at 80 °C or 2 days or more (the same litter was used in incubation). Approximately 9 g of litter leaves was packed in a tea mesh bag25 to prevent it from flying in the wind and placed on the soil surface of the garden pots. As indicated by the equation below, the amount of litter added to the 8 × 8 cm (0.0064 m2) garden pot used in this experiment amounts to approximately three years of litter production when converted to the amount of leaf litter in a 15-year-old alder forest, i.e., about 430 g/m2 per year26.
$$frac{9,g}{{430frac{g}{{ m^{2} }} yr times 0.0064 m^{2} }} cong 3.3 yr$$
Six seedlings per group of A. inokumae and B. ermanii were cultivated for approximately 2 months (June 7–August 22, 2019) and 12 seedlings per group of F. japonica were cultivated for about 1 month (September 10–October 15, 2019). The experiment was stopped after 1 month for F. japonica as it grew rapidly in 2 nutrient conditions (NP, NP+) and the roots overflowed from the garden pot. At the end of the experiment, growth was evaluated by measuring dry weight after drying seedlings at 80 °C for at least 48 h. Subsequently, the total phosphorus and nitrogen content of the dried seedlings were also measured (chemical analysis).
The mass of phosphorus leached from litter during the cultivation period was calculated from the difference in the phosphorus contents of the litter before and after cultivation.
Growth experiment 2: Comparative experiment on plant growth with old organic matter
Eight F. japonica seedlings were cultivated in three different soil-types (pumice, andosol, and topsoil, as mentioned above) under three experimental conditions (Con, N, P, same nutrition as growth experiment 1) from May 29 to July 12, 2019. These plants were then harvested and oven-dried at 80 °C for at least 48 h to measure dry weight. Subsequently, the total phosphorus and nitrogen content of the seedlings were also measured (chemical analysis).
Chemical analysis
Phosphorus
We used the dry destruction method to pretreat total phosphorus measurements in plant tissue27. A sample of the plant (0.05 g) was burned at 550 °C for 1 h. The plant ash was dissolved in 10 mL of 2 M H2SO4 and shaken for over 16 h; then, the solution was filtered. The filtrate was diluted at a 1:10 ratio with tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (pH 8.0).
The soil for available phosphorus were pretreated by Truog’ s method28. The soil (0.05 g) was dissolved in 10 mL of 0.002 M H2SO4, shaken for 30 min, and the solution was filtered. The filtrate was diluted at a 1:10 ratio with water.
The amount of phosphorus in the sample solution was measured by the molybdenum blue colorimetric method29.
Nitrogen
The total nitrogen in plant tissue was measured using an elemental analyzer (EA; Vario Macro cube, Elementar, Germany). A few milligrams of the dried plant sample were placed in a tin capsule for EA combustion. EA carried out sample combustion and N2 separation/detection from the combusted gases and provided us with nitrogen contents.
The soil sample preparation for available nitrogen measurements was based on the incubation methodology30. Half of the sampled soils were analyzed fresh, and the other half incubated for four weeks at 30 °C before analysis. 2 M KCl (20 mL) was added to 2 g of the soil sample; the solution was shaken for 1 h and filtered. The filtrate was collected, and the volume of nitrogen was measured by indophenol blue absorptiometry after reducing all to ammonia using Pack Test WAK-TNi (Kyoritsu Chemical-Check Lab., Corp, Tokyo, Japan). Available nitrogen was taken as the difference in the concentration of inorganic nitrogen (NO3-N, NO2-N and NH4-N) between incubated and fresh soil.
Statistical analysis
All statistical analyses were performed with EZR31 (Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, Saitama, Japan), which is a graphical user interface for R (The R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). More precisely, it is a modified version of R commander designed to add statistical functions frequently used in biostatistics. The figure’s values are mean ± SE. Intergroup differences for nutrition conditions in soil, and soil-types were evaluated using non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis with post-hoc Steel–Dwass tests. In addition, comparisons between with or without litter were evaluated using two-tailed Mann–Whitney U-test. p values are * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Source: Ecology - nature.com
