DeVault, T. L., Rhodes, O. E. Jr. & Shivik, J. A. Scavenging by vertebrates: Behavioral, ecological, and evolutionary perspectives on an important energy transfer pathway in terrestrial ecosystems. Oikos 102, 225–234 (2003).
Wilson, E. E. & Wolkovich, E. M. Scavenging: How carnivores and carrion structure communities. Trends Ecol. Evol. 26, 129–135 (2011).
Google Scholar
Barton, P. S., Cunningham, S. A., Lindenmayer, D. B. & Manning, A. D. The role of carrion in maintaining biodiversity and ecological processes in terrestrial ecosystems. Oecologia 171, 761–772 (2013).
Google Scholar
Benbow, M. E. et al. Necrobiome framework for bridging decomposition ecology of autotrophically and heterotrophically derived organic matter. Ecol. Monogr. 89, e01331 (2019).
Carter, D. O., Yellowlees, D. & Tibbett, M. Cadaver decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems. Naturwissenschaften 94, 12–24 (2007).
Google Scholar
Bump, J. K., Peterson, R. O. & Vucetich, J. A. Wolves modulate soil nutrient heterogeneity and foliar nitrogen by configuring the distribution of ungulate carcasses. Ecology 90, 3159–3167 (2009).
Google Scholar
Beasley, J. C., Olson, Z. H. & DeVault, T. L. Ecological role of vertebrate scavengers. In Carrion Ecology, Evolution, and Their Applications (eds Benbow, E. M. et al.) 107–127 (CRC Press, 2015).
DeVault, T. L., Brisbin, I. L. Jr. & Rhodes, O. E. Jr. Factors influencing the acquisition of rodent carrion by vertebrate scavengers and decomposers. Can. J. Zool. 82, 502–509 (2004).
Moleón, M., Sánchez-Zapata, J. A., Sebastián-González, E. & Owen-Smith, N. Carcass size shapes the structure and functioning of an African scavenging assemblage. Oikos 124, 1391–1403 (2015).
Turner, K. L., Abernethy, E. F., Conner, L. M., Rhodes, O. E. & Beasley, J. C. Abiotic and biotic factors modulate carrion fate and vertebrate scavenging communities. Ecology 98, 2413–2424 (2017).
Google Scholar
Selva, N. The Role of Scavenging in the Predator Community of Białowieża Primeval Forest (E Poland) (Univeristy of Sevilla, 2004).
Moleón, M. et al. Carnivore carcasses are avoided by carnivores. J. Anim. Ecol. 86, 1179–1191 (2017).
Google Scholar
Selva, N. & Fortuna, M. A. The nested structure of a scavenger community. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 274, 1101–1108 (2007).
Abernethy, E. F. et al. Carcasses of invasive species are predominantly utilized by invasive scavengers in an island ecosystem. Ecosphere 7, e01496 (2016).
DeVault, T. L., Seamans, T. W., Linnell, K. E., Sparks, D. W. & Beasley, J. C. Scavenger removal of bird carcasses at simulated wind turbines: Does carcass type matter?. Ecosphere 8, e01994 (2017).
Olson, Z. H., Beasley, J. C. & Rhodes, O. E. Carcass type affects local scavenger guilds more than habitat connectivity. PLoS ONE 11, e0147798 (2016).
Google Scholar
Muñoz-Lozano, C. et al. Avoidance of carnivore carcasses by vertebrate scavengers enables colonization by a diverse community of carrion insects. PLoS ONE 14, e0221890 (2019).
Google Scholar
Peers, M. J. L. et al. Vertebrate scavenging dynamics differ between carnivore and herbivore carcasses in the northern boreal forest. Ecosphere 12, e03691 (2021).
Pfennig, D. W. Effect of predator-prey phylogenetic similarity on the fitness consequences of predation: A trade-off between nutrition and disease?. Am. Nat. 155, 335–345 (2000).
Google Scholar
Polis, G. A. The evolution and dynamics of intraspecific predation. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 12, 225–251 (1981).
Elgar, M. A. & Crespi, B. J. Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa (Oxford University Press, 1992).
Fouilloux, C., Ringler, E. & Rojas, B. Cannibalism. Curr. Biol. 29, R1295–R1297 (2019).
Google Scholar
Oliva-Vidal, P., Tobajas, J. & Margalida, A. Cannibalistic necrophagy in red foxes: Do the nutritional benefits offset the potential costs of disease transmission?. Mamm. Biol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42991-021-00184-5 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mateo, J. M. Recognition systems and biological organization: The perception component of social recognition. Ann. Zool. Fenn. 41, 729745 (2004).
Dangles, O., Irschick, D., Chittka, L. & Casas, J. Variability in sensory ecology: Expanding the bridge between physiology and evolutionary biology. Q. Rev. Biol. 84, 51–74 (2009).
Google Scholar
Janzen, D. H. Why fruits rot, seeds mold, and meat spoils. Am. Nat. 111, 691–713 (1977).
Google Scholar
Ogada, D. L., Torchin, M. E., Kinnaird, M. F. & Ezenwa, V. O. Effects of vulture declines on facultative scavengers and potential implications for mammalian disease transmission. Conserv. Biol. 26, 453–460 (2012).
Google Scholar
Gonzálvez, M., Martínez-Carrasco, C., Sánchez-Zapata, J. A. & Moleón, M. Smart carnivores think twice: red fox delays scavenging on conspecific carcasses to reduce parasite risk. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 243, 105462 (2021).
Google Scholar
Selva, N., Jedrzejewska, B., Jedrzejewski, W. & Wajrak, A. Scavenging on European bison carcasses in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (eastern Poland). Écoscience 10, 303–311 (2003).
Carr, W. J., Hirsch, J. T., Campellone, B. E. & Marasco, E. Some determinants of a natural food aversion in Norway rats. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 93, 899–906 (1979).
Gaynor, K. M., Brown, J. S., Middleton, A. D., Power, M. E. & Brashares, J. S. Landscapes of fear: Spatial patterns of risk perception and response. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 355–368 (2019).
Google Scholar
Moleón, M. & Sánchez-Zapata, J. A. The role of carrion in the landscapes of fear and disgust: a review and prospects. Diversity 13, 28 (2021).
Hartig, F. DHARMa: Residual Diagnostics for Hierarchical (Multi-Level/Mixed) Regression Models (Springer, 2022).
Hothorn, T., Winell, H., Hornik, K., van de Wiel, M. A. & Zeileis, A. Coin: Conditional Inference Procedures in a Permutation Test Framework (Springer, 2021).
Owings, C. G., Gilhooly, W. P. & Picard, C. J. Blow fly stable isotopes reveal larval diet: A case study in community level anthropogenic effects. PLoS ONE 16, e0249422 (2021).
Google Scholar
Matuszewski, S., Konwerski, S., Frątczak, K. & Szafałowicz, M. Effect of body mass and clothing on decomposition of pig carcasses. Int. J. Legal Med. 128, 1039–1048 (2014).
Google Scholar
Cunningham, C. X. et al. Top carnivore decline has cascading effects on scavengers and carrion persistence. Proc. R. Soc. B. 285, 1–10 (2018).
Huang, S., Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P., Stephens, P. R., Gittleman, J. L. & Altizer, S. Phylogenetically related and ecologically similar carnivores harbour similar parasite assemblages. J. Anim. Ecol. 83, 671–680 (2014).
Google Scholar
Hill, D. E., Chirukandoth, S. & Dubey, J. P. Biology and epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in man and animals. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 6, 41–61 (2005).
Google Scholar
Hill, D. E. et al. Trichinella murrelli in scavenging mammals from south-central Wisconsin, USA. J. Wildl. Dis. 44, 629–635 (2008).
Google Scholar
Sandfoss, M., DePerno, C., Patton, S., Flowers, J. & Kennedy-Stoskopf, S. Prevalence of antibody to Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. in feral pigs (Sus scrofa) of eastern North Carolina. J. Wildl. Dis. 47, 338–343 (2011).
Google Scholar
Butler, J. R. A., du Toit, J. T. & Bingham, J. Free-ranging domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) as predators and prey in rural Zimbabwe: Threats of competition and disease to large wild carnivores. Biol. Conserv. 115, 369–378 (2004).
Mendenhall, I. H. et al. Evidence of canine parvovirus transmission to a civet cat (Paradoxurus musangus) in Singapore. One Health 2, 122–125 (2016).
Google Scholar
Han, B. A., Castellanos, A. A., Schmidt, J. P., Fischhoff, I. R. & Drake, J. M. The ecology of zoonotic parasites in the Carnivora. Trends Parasitol. 37, 1096–1110 (2021).
Google Scholar
Malmberg, J. L., White, L. A. & VandeWoude, S. Bioaccumulation of pathogen exposure in top predators. Trends Ecol. Evol. 36, 411–420 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mammal Diversity Database (Version 1.9). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6407053 (2022).
Han, B. A., Kramer, A. M. & Drake, J. M. Global patterns of zoonotic disease in mammals. Trends Parasitol. 32, 565–577 (2016).
Google Scholar
Digby, Z. et al. Evolutionary loss of inflammasomes in the Carnivora and implications for the carriage of zoonotic infections. Cell Rep. 36, 109614 (2021).
Google Scholar
Buck, J. C., Weinstein, S. B. & Young, H. S. Ecological and evolutionary consequences of parasite avoidance. Trends Ecol. Evol. 33, 619–632 (2018).
Google Scholar
Hart, B. L. & Hart, L. A. How mammals stay healthy in nature: The evolution of behaviours to avoid parasites and pathogens. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 373, 20170205 (2018).
Brown, C. J. & Plug, I. Food choice and diet of the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 25, 169–177 (1990).
Rossi, L., Interisano, M., Deksne, G. & Pozio, E. The subnivium, a haven for Trichinella larvae in host carcasses. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasit. Wildl. 8, 229–233 (2019).
Micozzi, M. S. Experimental study of postmortem change under field conditions: Effects of freezing, thawing, and mechanical injury. J. Forensic Sci. 31, 953–961 (1986).
Google Scholar
Mayntz, D. & Toft, S. Nutritional value of cannibalism and the role of starvation and nutrient imbalance for cannibalistic tendencies in a generalist predator. J. Anim. Ecol. 75, 288–297 (2006).
Google Scholar
Margalida, A. Bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus) prefer fatty bones. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 63, 187–193 (2008).
Parmenter, R. R. & MacMahon, J. A. Carrion decomposition and nutrient cycling in a semiarid shrub–steppe ecosystem. Ecol. Monogr. 79, 637–661 (2009).
Evans, B. E., Mosby, C. E. & Mortelliti, A. Assessing arrays of multiple trail cameras to detect North American mammals. PLoS ONE 14, 1–18 (2019).
Ivan, J. S. & Newkirk, E. S. CPW Photo Warehouse: A custom database to facilitate archiving, identifying, summarizing and managing photo data collected from camera traps. Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 499–504 (2016).
Therneau, T. M. & Grambsch, P. M. Modeling Survival Data: Extending the Cox Model (Springer, 2000).
Google Scholar
Kassambara, A., Kosinski, M. & Biecek, P. survminer: Drawing Survival Curves Using ‘ggplot2’ (Springer, 2020).
Nenadic, O. & Greenacre, M. Correspondence analysis in R, with two- and three-dimensional graphics: the ca package. J. Stat. Softw. 20, 1–13 (2007).
Kassambara, A. & Mundt, F. factoextra: Extract and Visualize the Results of Multivariate Data Analyses (Springer, 2020).
Greenacre, M. The contributions of rare objects in correspondence analysis. Ecology 94, 241–249 (2013).
Google Scholar
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2022).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
