Nakamura, A. et al. Forests and their canopies: Achievements and horizons in canopy science. Trends Ecol. Evol. 32, 438–451 (2017).
Google Scholar
Scheffers, B. R. et al. Microhabitats reduce animal’s exposure to climate extremes. Glob. Change Biol. 20, 495–503 (2014).
Google Scholar
Lefsky, M. A. et al. Estimates of forest canopy height and aboveground biomass using ICESat. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L22S02 (2005).
Ellwood, M. D. F. & Foster, W. A. Doubling the estimate of invertebrate biomass in a rainforest canopy. Nature 429, 549–551 (2004).
Google Scholar
Dial, R. et al. Arthropod abundance, canopy structure, and microclimate in a Bornean lowland tropical rain forest. Biotropica 38, 643–652 (2006).
Valencia, R. et al. High tree alpha-diversity in Amazonian Ecuador. Biodivers. Conserv. 3, 21–28 (1994).
Stone, M. J. et al. Edge effects and beta diversity in ground and canopy beetle communities of fragmented subtropical forest. PLoS ONE 13, e0193369 (2018).
Google Scholar
Nadkarni, N. M. Diversity of species and interactions in the upper tree canopy of forest ecosystems. Am. Zool. 34, 70–78 (1994).
Stanton, D. E. et al. Rapid nitrogen fixation by canopy microbiome in tropical forest determined by both phosphorus and molybdenum. Ecology 100(9), e02795 (2019).
Google Scholar
Basset, Y. et al. (eds) Arthropods of Tropical Forests. Spatio-Temporal Dynamics and Resource Use in the Canopy (Cambridge University Press, 2003).
Schowalter, T. D. et al. Post-hurricane successional dynamics in abundance and diversity of canopy arthropods in a tropical rainforest. Environ. Entomol. 46, 11–20 (2017).
Google Scholar
Silva, R. R. & Brandão, C. R. F. Morphological patterns and community organization in leaf-litter ant assemblages. Ecol. Monogr. 80, 107–124 (2010).
McCaig, T., Sam, L., Nakamura, L. & Stork, N. E. Is insect vertical distribution in rainforests better explained by distance from the canopy top or distance from the ground?. Biodivers. Conserv. 29, 1081–1103 (2020).
Floren, A. & Linsenmair, K. E. The influence of anthropogenic disturbances on the structure of arboreal arthropod communities. Plant Ecol. 153, 153–167 (2001).
Adis, J. et al. Canopy fogging of an overstory tree—Recommendations for standardization. Ecotropica 4, 93–97 (1998).
Bar-Ness, Y. D. et al. Sampling forest canopy arthropod biodiversity with three novel minimal-cost trap designs. Aust. J. Entomol. 51, 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-6055.2011.00836.x (2012).
Google Scholar
Erwin, T. L. Canopy arthropod biodiversity: A chronology of sampling techniques and results. Rev. Peru. Entomol. 2, 71–77 (1990).
Floren, A. Sampling arthropods from the canopy by insecticidal knockdown. In Manual on Field Recording Techniques and Protocols for All Taxa Biodiversity Inventories, Part 1 Vol. 8 (eds Eymann, J., Degref, J., Häuser, C. et al.) 158–172 (ABC Taxa, 2010).
Leather, S. R. (ed.) Insect Sampling in Forest Ecosystems (Blackwell Science, 2005).
Lowman, M., Moffett, M. & Rinker, H. B. A new technique for taxonomic and ecological sampling in rain forest canopies. Selbyana 14, 75–79 (1993).
Lowman, M. D., Kitching, R. L. & Carruthers, G. Arthropod sampling in Australian subtropical rain forest: How accurate are some of the more common techniques?. Selbyana 17, 36–42 (1996).
Lowman, M. D., Schowalter, T. D. & Franklin, J. F. Methods in Forest Canopy Research (University of California Press, 2012).
Majer, J. D. & Recher, H. F. Invertebrate communities on Western Australian eucalypts—A comparison of branch clipping and chemical knockdown procedures. Aust. J. Ecol. 13, 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1988.tb00974.x (1988).
Google Scholar
Ozanne, C. M. P. Techniques and methods for sampling canopy insects. In Insect Sampling in forest ecosystems (ed. Leather, S. R.) 146–165 (Blackwell, 2005).
Paarmann, W. & Stork, N. E. Canopy fogging, a method of collecting living insects for investigation of life history strategies. J. Nat. Hist. 21, 563–566. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222938700770341 (1987).
Google Scholar
Parker, G. G., Smith, A. P. & Hogan, K. P. Access to the upper forest canopy with a large tower crane. Bioscience 42, 664–670. https://doi.org/10.2307/1312172 (1992).
Google Scholar
Skvarla, M. J., Larson, J. L., Fisher, J. R. & Dowling, A. P. G. A review of terrestrial and canopy malaise traps. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 114(1), 27–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/saaa044 (2021).
Google Scholar
Stork, N. E. Australian tropical forest canopy crane: New tools for new frontiers. Aust. Ecol. 32, 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01740.x (2007).
Google Scholar
Basset, Y. et al. IBISCA-Panama, a large-scale study of arthropod beta-diversity and vertical stratification in a lowland rainforest: Rationale, study sites and field protocols. Bull. Inst. R. Sci. Nat. Belg. Entomol. 77, 39–69 (2007).
Basset, Y., Cizek, L. & Cuénoud, P. Arthropod diversity in a tropical forest. Science 338, 1481–1484. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1226727 (2012).
Google Scholar
Kitching, R. L. et al. The biodiversity of arthropods from Australian rainforest canopies: General introduction, methods, sites and ordinal results. Aust. J. Ecol. 18, 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1993.tb00442.x (1993).
Google Scholar
Lindo, Z. & Winchester, N. N. Oribatid mite communities and foliar litter decomposition in canopy suspended soils and forest floor habitats of western red cedar forests, Vancouver Island, Canada. Soil Biol. Biochem. 39, 2957–2966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.06.009 (2007).
Google Scholar
Schowalter, T. D. Canopy arthropod communities in relation to forest age and alternative harvest practices in western Oregon. For. Ecol. Manage 78, 115–125 (1995).
Southwood, T. R. E., Moran, V. C. & Kennedy, C. E. J. The assessment of arboreal insect fauna: Comparisons of knockdown sampling and faunal lists. Ecol. Entomol. 7, 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1982.tb00674.x (1982).
Google Scholar
Stork, N. E. Guild structure of arthropods from Bornean rain forest trees. Ecol. Entomol. 12, 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1987.tb00986.x (1987).
Google Scholar
Stork, N. E. et al. (eds) Canopy Arthropods (Chapman & Hall, 1997).
DeVries, P. J. Stratification of fruit-feeding nymphalid butterflies in a Costa Rican rain forest. J. Res. Lepid. 26, 98–108 (1988).
Google Scholar
Hill, C. J., Gillison, A. N. & Jones, R. E. The spatial distribution of rain forest butterflies at three sites in North Queensland, Australia. J. Trop. Ecol. 8, 37–46 (1992).
Medina, M. C., Robbins, R. K. & Lamas, G. Vertical stratification of flight by Ithomiinae butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) at Pakitza, Manu National Park, Peru. In Manu—The Biodiversity of Southeastern Peru (eds Wilson, D. E. & Sandoval, A.) 211–216 (Smithsonian Institution, 1996).
DeVries, P. J., Murray, D. & Lande, R. Species diversity in vertical, horizontal, and temporal dimensions of a fruitfeeding butterfly community in an Ecuadorian rainforest. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 62, 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1997.tb01630.x (1997).
Google Scholar
DeVries, P. J., Murray, D. & Lande, R. Species diversity in vertical, horizontal, and temporal dimensions of a fruit-feeding butterfly community in an Ecuadorian rain forest. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 62, 343–364 (1997).
Beccaloni, G. W. Vertical stratification of ithomiine butterfly (Nymphalidae: Ithomiinae) mimicry complexes: The relationship between adult flight height and larval host-plant height. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 62, 313–341 (1997).
Schulze, C. H., Linsenmair, K. E. & Fiedler, K. Understorey versus canopy: Patterns of vertical stratification and diversity among Lepidoptera in a Bornean Rain Forest. Plant Ecol. 153, 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017589711553 (2001).
Google Scholar
Fordyce, J. A. & DeVries, P. J. A tale of two communities: Eotropical butterfly assemblages show higher beta diversity in the canopy compared to the understory. Oecologia 181, 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3562-0 (2016).
Google Scholar
Santos, J. P., Iserhard, C. A., Carreira, J. Y. O. & Freitas, A. V. L. Monitoring fruit-feeding butterfly assemblages in two vertical strata in seasonal Atlantic Forest: Temporal species turnover is lower in the canopy. J. Trop. Ecol. 33(5), 345–355 (2017).
Lourido, G. M., Motta, C. S., Graça, M. B. & Rafael, J. A. Diversity patterns of hawkmoths (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) in the canopy of an ombrophilous forest in Central Amazon, Brazil. Acta Amazon. 48, 117–125 (2018).
Araujo, P. F., Freitas, A. V. L., Gonçalves, G. A. S. & Ribeiro, D. B. Vertical stratification on a small scale: The distribution of fruit-feeding butterflies in a semi-deciduous Atlantic forest in Brazil. Stud. Neotrop. Fauna Environ. 56, 10–39 (2021).
Charles, E. & Basset, Y. Vertical stratification of leaf-beetle assemblages (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in two forest types in Panama. J. Trop. Ecol. 21, 329–336. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266467405002300 (2005).
Google Scholar
Grimbacher, P. S. & Stork, N. E. Vertical stratification of feeding guilds and body size in beetle assemblages from an Australian tropical rainforest. Aust. Ecol. 32, 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01735.x (2007).
Google Scholar
Floren, A. & Schmidl, J. (eds) Canopy Arthropod Research in Europe: Basic and Applied Studies from the High Frontier (Bioform Entomology & Equipment, 2008).
Stork, N. E. et al. Vertical stratification of beetles in tropical rainforests as sampled by light traps in North Queensland, Australia. Austral Ecol. 41(2), 168–178 (2015).
Tregidgo, D. J., Qie, L., Barlow, J., Sodhi, N. S. & Lee-Hong, L. S. Vertical stratification responses of an arboreal dung beetle species to tropical forest fragmentation in Malaysia. Biotropica 42, 521–552 (2010).
Davis, A. J., Sutton, S. L. & Brendell, M. J. D. Vertical distribution of beetles in a tropical rainforest in Sulawesi: The role of the canopy in contributing to Biodiversity. Sepilok Bull. 13 & 14, 59–83 (2011).
Heatwole, H. Changes in ant assemblages across an arctic treeline. Rev d’Entomol du Quebec 34, 10–22 (1989).
Roubik, D. W. Tropical pollinators in the canopy and understory: Field data and theory for stratum “preferences”. J. Ins. Behav. 6, 659–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01201668 (1993).
Google Scholar
Longino, J. T. & Colwell, R. K. Biodiversity assessment using structured inventory: Capturing the ant fauna of a tropical rain forest. Ecol. Appl. 7, 1263–1277. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(1997)007[1263:BAUSIC]2.0.CO;2 (1997).
Google Scholar
Vance, A. C. C., Smith, S. M., Malcolm, J. R., Huber, J. & Bellocq, M. I. Differences between forest type and vertical strata in the diversity and composition of hymenopteran families and mymarid genera in Northeastern Temperate Forests. Environ. Entomol. 36, 1073–1083. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225X(2007)36[1073:DBFTAV]2.0.CO;2 (2007).
Google Scholar
Hernández-Flores, J. et al. Effect of forest disturbance on ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) diversity in a Mexican tropical dry forest canopy. Insect Conserv. Diver. 14(3), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/icad.12466 (2020).
Google Scholar
Roberts, H. R. Arboreal Orthoptera in the rain forest of Costa Rica collected with insecticide: A report on the grasshoppers (Acrididae) including new species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 125, 46–66 (1973).
Rodgers, D. J. & Kitching, R. L. Vertical stratification of rainforest collembolan (Collembola: Insecta) assemblages: Description of ecological patterns and hypotheses concerning their generation. Ecography 21, 392–400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.1998.tb00404.x (1998).
Google Scholar
Krab, E. J., Oorsprong, H., Berg, M. P. & Cornelissen, J. H. C. Turning northern peatlands upside down: Disentangling microclimate and substrate quality effects on vertical distribution of Collembola. Funct. Ecol. 24, 1362–1369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01754.x (2010).
Google Scholar
Coots, C., Lambdin, P., Grant, J., Rhea, R. & Mockford, E. Vertical stratification and co-occurrence patterns of the psocoptera community associated with Eastern Hemlock, Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière, in the Southern Appalachians. Forests 3, 127–136. https://doi.org/10.3390/f3010127 (2012).
Google Scholar
Wardhaugh, C. W. et al. Vertical stratification in the spatial distribution of the beech scale insect (Ultracoelostoma assimile) in Nothofagus tree canopies in New Zealand. Ecol. Entomol. 31, 185–195 (2006).
Brown, B. V. et al. Comprehensive inventory of true flies (Diptera) at a tropical site. Commun. Biol. 1, 1–8 (2018).
Google Scholar
Borkent, A. et al. Remarkable fly (Diptera) diversity in a patch of Costa Rican cloud forest: Why inventory is a vital science. Zootaxa 4402, 53–90 (2018).
Google Scholar
Hebert, P. D. N. et al. Counting animal species with DNA barcodes: Canadian insects. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B. 371, 20150333 (2016).
Basset, Y. et al. Arthropod distribution in a tropical rainforest: Tackling a four dimensional puzzle. PLoS ONE 10, e0144110 (2015).
Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. H. Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests. Ecology 39, 599–619 (1958).
Higuchi, N. et al. Governos locais amazônicos e as questões climáticas globais 103 (INPA/edição dos autores, 2009).
Brown, B. V. Malaise trap catches and the crisis in Neotropical dipterology. Am. Entomol. 51, 180–183 (2005).
Gressitt, J. L. & Gressitt, M. K. An improved Malaise trap. Pacific Insects 4, 87–90 (1962).
van Achterberg, K. Can Townes type Malaise traps be improved? Some recent developments. Entomologische Berichten 69, 129–135 (2009).
R Core Team (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. (Accessed 20 October 2021); https://www.R-project.org/.
Konietschke, F. (2011). nparcomp: nparcomp-package. R package version 1.0-1. (Accessed 20 October 2021); http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nparcomp
Alboukadel Kassambara (2020). ggpubr: ‘ggplot2’ Based Publication Ready Plots. R package version 0.3.0. (Accessed 20 October 2021); https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ggpubr
Watson, J. E. M. et al. The exceptional value of intact forest ecosystems. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 599–610 (2018).
Google Scholar
Gibson, L. et al. Primary forests are irreplaceable for sustaining tropical biodiversity. Nature 478, 378–381 (2011).
Google Scholar
Qin, Y. et al. Improved estimates of forest cover and loss in the Brazilian Amazon in 2000–2017. Nat. Sustain. 2, 764–772 (2019).
Gardner, T. A. et al. Predicting the uncertain future of tropical forest species in a data vacuum. Biotropica 39, 25–30 (2007).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
