Gómez, J. M., Verdú, M., González-Megías, A. & Méndez, M. The phylogenetic roots of human lethal violence. Nature 538, 233–237. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19758 (2016).
Google Scholar
Darwin, C. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. (Appleton, 1872).
Hamilton, W. D. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. J. Theor. Biol. 7, 1–16 (1964).
Google Scholar
Smith, J. M. & Price, G. R. The logic of animal conflict. Nature 246, 15–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/246015a0 (1973).
Google Scholar
Mitani, J. C., Watts, D. P. & Amsler, S. J. Lethal intergroup aggression leads to territorial expansion in wild chimpanzees. Curr. Biol. 20, 507–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.021 (2010).
Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. W. Evolution of coalitionary killing. Yearb. Phys. Anthropol. 42, 1–30 (1999).
Google Scholar
Boesch, C. et al. Intergroup conflicts among chimpanzees in Taı National Park: Lethal violence and the female perspective. Am. J. Primatol. 70, 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20524 (2008).
Google Scholar
Robbins, M. M. & Robbins, A. M. Simulation of the population dynamics and social structure of the Virunga Mountain gorillas. Am. J. Primatol. 63, 201–223. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20052 (2004).
Google Scholar
Watts, D. P. Infanticide in Mountain gorillas: New cases and a reconsideration of evidence. Ethology 81, 1–18 (1989).
Google Scholar
Yamagiwa, J., Kahekwa, J. & Basabose, A. K. Infanticide and social flexibility in the genus Gorilla. Primates 50, 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-009-0163-0 (2009).
Google Scholar
Wilson, M. L. et al. Lethal aggression in Pan is better explained by adaptive strategies than human impacts. Nature 513, 414–417. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13727 (2014).
Google Scholar
Marzec, A. M. et al. The dark side of the red ape: Male-mediated lethal female competition in Bornean orangutans. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 70, 459–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-015-2053-3 (2016).
Google Scholar
Goodall, J. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behaviour. (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986).
Nishida, T., Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, M., Hasegawa, T. & Takahata, Y. Group extinction and female transfer in wild chimpanzees in the Mahale National Park, Tanzania. Z. Tierpsychol. 67, 284–301 (1985).
Google Scholar
Mitani, J. C. & Watts, D. P. Correlates of territorial boundary patrol behaviour in wild chimpanzees. Anim. Behav. 70, 1079–1086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.02.012 (2005).
Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. The Goodness Paradox: The Strange Relationship Between Virtue and Violence in Human Evolution. (Pantheon, 2019).
Boehm, C. In Us Against Them: Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals (eds Harcourt, A. & De Waal, F. B. M.) 37–173 (Oxford University Press, 1992).
Bermejo, M. Home-range use and intergroup encounters in western gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) at Lossi Forest, North Congo. Am. J. Primatol. 64, 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20073 (2004).
Google Scholar
Kaessmann, H. & Pääbo, S. The genetical history of humans and the great apes. J. Intern. Med. 251, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00907.x (2002).
Google Scholar
Robbins, M. M. & Robbins, A. M. Variation in the social organization of gorillas: Life history and socioecological perspectives. Evol. Anthropol. Issues News Rev. 27, 218–233. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21721 (2018).
Google Scholar
Yamagiwa, J., Basabose, K., Kaleme, K. & Yumoto, T. In Gorilla Biology: A Multidisciplinary Perspective (eds Taylor, A. B. & Goldsmith, M. L.) 328–356 (Cambridge University Press, 2003).
Robbins, M. M. et al. Social structure and life-history patterns in western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Am. J. Primatol. 64, 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20069 (2004).
Google Scholar
Bradley, B. J., Doran-Sheehy, D. M., Lukas, D., Boesch, C. & Vigilant, L. Dispersed male networks in western gorillas. Curr. Biol. 14, 510–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2004.02.062 (2004).
Google Scholar
Sicotte, P. Inter-group encounters and female transfer in mountain gorillas: Influence of group composition on male behavior. Am. J. Primatol. 30, 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350300103 (1993).
Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, S., Vecellio, V. & Stoinski, T. Observations of severe and lethal coalitionary attacks in wild mountain gorillas. Sci. Rep. 6, 37018. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep37018 (2016).
Google Scholar
Morrison, R. E., Dunn, J. C., Illera, G., Walsh, P. D. & Bermejo, M. Western gorilla space use suggests territoriality. Sci. Rep. 10, 3692. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60504-6 (2020).
Google Scholar
Palomares, F. & Caro, T. M. Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores. Am. Nat. 153, 492–508. https://doi.org/10.1086/303189 (1999).
Google Scholar
Dayan, T. & Simberloff, D. Size patterns among competitors: Ecological character displacement and character release in mammals, with special reference to island populations. Mammal Rev. 28, 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2907.1998.00029.x (1998).
Google Scholar
Taylor, R. J. Predation. 166 (Springer Science & Business Media, 2013).
Methion, S. & Díaz López, B. Spatial segregation and interspecific killing of common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Acta Ethol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10211-021-00363-0 (2021).
Google Scholar
Polis, G. A., Myers, C. A. & Holt, R. D. The ecology and evolution of intraguild predation: Potential competitors that eat each other. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 20, 297–330. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.001501 (1989).
Google Scholar
Polis, G. A. & Holt, R. D. Intraguild predation: The dynamics of complex trophic interactions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 7, 151–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(92)90208-S (1992).
Google Scholar
de Oliveira, T. & Pereira, J. Intraguild predation and interspecific killing as structuring forces of carnivoran communities in South America. J. Mamm. Evol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10914-013-9251-4 (2014).
Google Scholar
Surbeck, M. & Hohmann, G. Primate hunting by bonobos at LuiKotale, Salonga National Park. Curr. Biol. 18, 906–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.08.040 (2008).
Google Scholar
Hohmann, G. & Fruth, B. New records on prey capture and meat eating by bonobos at Lui Kotale, Salonga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Folia Primatol. 79, 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1159/000110679 (2008).
Google Scholar
Stanford, C. B. Chimpanzee hunting behavior and human evolution. Am. Sci. 83, 256–261 (1995).
Google Scholar
Newton-Fisher, N. E. In Handbook of Paleoanthropology (eds Winfried, H. & Ian, T.) 1295–1320 (Springer, 2007).
Mitani, J. C. & Watts, D. P. Demographic influences on the hunting behavior of chimpanzees. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 109, 439–454. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199908)109:43.0.CO;2-3″>https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199908)109:4<439::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-3 (1999).
Google Scholar
Mitani, J. C. & Watts, D. P. Why do chimpanzees hunt and share meat?. Anim. Behav. 61, 915–924. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2000.1681 (2001).
Google Scholar
Nishida, T., Uehara, S. & Nyundo, R. Predatory behavior among wild chimpanzees of the Mahale mountains. Primates 20, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02373826 (1979).
Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch, H. Hunting behavior of wild chimpanzees in the Tai National Park. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 78, 547–573. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330780410 (1989).
Google Scholar
Watts, D. P. & Mitani, J. C. Hunting behavior of chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Int. J. Primatol. 23, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013270606320 (2002).
Google Scholar
Pika, S. et al. Wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) exploit tortoises (Kinixys erosa) via percussive technology. Sci. Rep. 9, 7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-43301-8 (2019).
Google Scholar
Basabose, K. & Yamagiwa, J. Predation on mammals by chimpanzees in the montane forest of Kahuzi, Zaire. Primates 38, 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02385921 (1997).
Google Scholar
Klein, H. et al. Hunting of mammals by central chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in the Loango National Park, Gabon. Primates 62, 267–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-020-00885-4 (2021).
Google Scholar
Sanz, C., Morgan, D., Strindberg, S. & Onononga, J. R. Distinguishing between the nests of sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas. J. Appl. Ecol. 44, 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01278.x (2007).
Google Scholar
Harcourt, A. H. Is the gorilla a threatened species? How should we judge? Biol. Conserv. 75, 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(95)00059-3 (1996).
Google Scholar
Matthews, A. & Matthews, A. Survey of gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in Southwestern Cameroon. Primates 45, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-003-0058-4 (2004).
Google Scholar
Arandjelovic, M. et al. Effective non-invasive genetic monitoring of multiple wild western gorilla groups. Biol. Conserv. 143, 1780–1791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.04.030 (2010).
Google Scholar
Arandjelovic, M., Head, J., Rabanal, L. I., Schubert, G., Mettke, E., Boesch, C., Robbins, M. M. & Vigilant, L. Non-invasive genetic monitoring of wild central chimpanzees. PLoS One 6(3) (2011).
Martínez-Íñigo, L., Baas, P., Klein, H., Pika, S. & Deschner, T. Intercommunity interactions and killings in central chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) from Loango National Park, Gabon. Primates, 1–14 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-021-00921-x (2021).
Furuichi, T., Inagaki, H. & Angoue-Ovono, S. Population density of chimpanzees and gorillas in the Petit Loango Reserve, Gabon: Employing a new method to distinguish between nests of the two species. Int. J. Primatol. 18, 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026356432486 (1997).
Google Scholar
Poulsen, J. R. & Clark, C. J. Densities, distributions, and seasonal movements of gorillas and chimpanzees in swamp forest in Northern Congo. Int. J. Primatol. 25, 285–306. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:IJOP.0000019153.50161.58 (2004).
Google Scholar
Morgan, D., Sanz, C., Onononga, J. R. & Strindberg, S. Ape abundance and habitat use in the Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo. Int. J. Primatol. 27, 147–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-005-9013-0 (2006).
Google Scholar
Vieira, W. F., Kerry, C. & Hockings, K. J. A comparison of methods to determine chimpanzee home-range size in a forest–farm mosaic at Madina in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau. Primates 60, 355–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-019-00724-1 (2019).
Google Scholar
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, 2020). https://www.r-project.org/.
Calenge, C. The package adehabitat for the R software: Tool for the analysis of space and habitat use by animals. Ecol. Model. 197, 1035 (2006).
Google Scholar
Fossey, D. Vocalizations of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei). Anim. Behav. 20, 36–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(72)80171-4 (1972).
Google Scholar
Hagemann, L. et al. Long-term inference of population size and habitat use in a socially dynamic population of wild western lowland gorillas. Conserv. Genet. 20, 1303–1314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-019-01209-w (2019).
Google Scholar
Boesch, C. Cooperative hunting roles among taï chimpanzees. Hum. Nat. 13, 27–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-002-1013-6 (2002).
Google Scholar
Wilkinson, R., Leudar, I. & Pika, S. In Developments in Primate Gesture Research (eds Simone, P. & Katja, L.) 199–221 (John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2012).
Yamagiwa, J. & Basabose, A. K. Diet and seasonal changes in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees at Kahuzi-Biega National Park. Primates 47, 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-005-0147-7 (2006).
Google Scholar
Stanford, C. B. & Nkurunungi, J. B. Behavioral ecology of sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: Diet. Int. J. Primatol. 24, 901–918. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024689008159 (2003).
Google Scholar
Morgan, D. & Sanz, C. In Feeding Ecology in Apes and Other Primates (eds Hohmann, G., Robbins, M. M., & Boesch, C.) 97–122 (Cambridge University Press, 2006).
Yamagiwa, J. & Basabose, A. K. In Feeding Ecology in Apes and Other Primates. 73–96 (Cambridge University Press, 2006).
Tutin, C. E. & Fernandez, M. Composition of the diet of chimpanzees and comparisons with that of sympatric lowland gorillas in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon. Am. J. Primatol. 30, 195–211 (1993).
Google Scholar
Jones, C. & Sabater Pi, J. Comparative Ecology of Gorilla gorilla (Savage & Wyman) and Pan troglodytes (Blumenbuch) in Rio Muni, West Africa. (S. Karger, 1971).
Basabose, A. K. & Yamagiwa, J. Factors affecting nesting site choice in chimpanzees at Tshibati, Kahuzi-Biega National Park: Influence of sympatric gorillas. Int. J. Primatol. 23, 263–282 (2002).
Google Scholar
Walsh, P. D., Breuer, T., Sanz, C., Morgan, D. & Doran-Sheehy, D. Potential for Ebola transmission between gorilla and chimpanzee social groups. Am. Nat. 169, 684–689. https://doi.org/10.1086/513494 (2007).
Google Scholar
Stanford, C. B. The behavioral ecology of sympatric African apes: Implications for understanding fossil hominoid ecology. Primates 47, 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-005-0148-6 (2006).
Google Scholar
Eckardt, W. & Zuberbühler, K. Cooperation and competition in two forest monkeys. Behav. Ecol. 15, 400–411. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arh032 (2004).
Google Scholar
Rimbach, R., Pardo-Martinze, A., Montes-Rojas, A., Di Fiore, A. & Link, A. Interspecific infanticide and infant-directed aggression by spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus) in a fragmented forest in Colombia. Am. J. Primatol. 74, 990–997. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22052 (2012).
Google Scholar
Donadio, E. & Buskirk, S. W. Diet, morphology, and interspecific killing in Carnivora. Am. Nat. 167, 524–536. https://doi.org/10.1086/501033 (2006).
Google Scholar
Head, J., Boesch, C., Makaga, L. & Robbins, M. Sympatric Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) and Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Loango National Park, Gabon: Dietary composition, seasonality, and intersite comparisons. Int. J. Primatol. 32, 755–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-011-9499-6 (2011).
Google Scholar
Yamagiwa, J., Mwanza, N., Yumoto, T. & Maruhashi, T. Seasonal change in the composition of the diet of eastern lowland gorillas. Primates 35, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02381481 (1994).
Google Scholar
Kuroda, S. J., Nishihara, T., Suzuki, S. & Oko, R. A. In Great Ape Societies (eds McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., & Nishida, T.) 71–81 (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
Rogers, L. L. & Mech, L. D. Interactions of wolves and black bears in Northeastern Minnesota. J. Mammal. 62, 434–436. https://doi.org/10.2307/1380735 (1981).
Google Scholar
Eaton, R. Interference competition among carnivores: A model for the evolution of social behavior. Carnivore 2, 82–90 (1979).
Arim, M. & Marquet, P. A. Intraguild predation: A widespread interaction related to species biology. Ecol. Lett. 7, 557–564. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00613.x (2004).
Google Scholar
Watts, D. P., Potts, K. B., Lwanga, J. S. & Mitani, J. C. Diet of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 1. Diet composition and diversity. Am. J. Primatol. 74, 114–129. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.21016 (2012).
Google Scholar
Remis, M. J., Dierenfeld, E., Mowry, C. & Carroll, R. Nutritional aspects of western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) diet during seasons of fruit scarcity at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. Int. J. Primatol. 22, 807–836. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012021617737 (2001).
Google Scholar
Watts, D. P., Muller, M., Amsler, S. J., Mbabazi, G. & Mitani, J. C. Lethal intergroup aggression by chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Am. J. Primatol. 68, 161–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20214 (2006).
Google Scholar
Watts, D. P. & Mitani, J. C. Infanticide and cannibalism by male chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Primates 41, 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02557646 (2000).
Google Scholar
Furuichi, T. Variation in intergroup relationships among species and among and within local populations of African Apes. Int. J. Primatol. 41, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-020-00134-x (2020).
Google Scholar
Williams, J. M., Oehlert, G., Carlis, J. & Pusey, A. E. Why do male chimpanzees defend a group range? Reassessing male territoriality. Anim. Behav. 68, 523–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.09.015 (2004).
Google Scholar
Bush, E. R. et al. Long-term collapse in fruit availability threatens Central African forest megafauna. Science 370, 1219–1222. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc7791 (2020).
Google Scholar
Plavcan, J. M. Social behavior of early hominins. Int. J. Primatol. 33, 1247–1250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-012-9641-0 (2012).
Google Scholar
Kissel, M. & Kim, N. C. The emergence of human warfare: Current perspectives. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 168, 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23751 (2019).
Google Scholar
Estrada, A. et al. Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: Why primates matter. Sci. Adv. 3. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1600946 (2017).
Google Scholar
Altmann, J. Observational study of behaviour: Sampling methods. Behaviour 49, 227–267 (1974).
Google Scholar
CyberTracker Conservation NPC. CyberTracker Conservation. (2021).
Köndgen, S. et al. Pandemic human viruses cause decline of endangered great apes. Curr. Biol. 18, 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.01.012 (2008).
Google Scholar
Leendertz, F. H. et al. Anthrax kills wild chimpanzees in a tropical rainforest. Nature 430, 451–452. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02722 (2004).
Google Scholar
Source: Ecology - nature.com