Plant materials
An ALS-inhibitor-resistant johnsongrass (resistant to nicosulfuron) obtained from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (source credit: Dr. John Lindquist) was used as the pollen source (male parent), and the natural johnsongrass population present in the experimental field at the Texas A&M University Farm, Somerville (Burleson County), Texas (30° 32′ 15.4″ N 96° 25′ 49.2″ W) with no history of ALS-inhibitor resistance was used as the pollen recipient (female parent). Prior to the initiation of the field experiment, the susceptibility to nicosulfuron of the natural johnsongrass population was verified by spraying Accent Q at the labeled field rate of 63 g ai ha−1 [mixed with 0.25% v/v Crop Oil Concentrate (COC)] on 10 randomly selected 1 m2 johnsongrass patches across the field area at 15–30 cm tall seedling stage. For this purpose, a CO2 pressurized backpack sprayer was calibrated to deliver 140 L ha−1 of spray volume at an operating speed of 4.8 kmph. The natural johnsongrass population was determined to be completely susceptible to nicosulfuron.
During spring 2018, the seeds of AR johnsongrass were planted in pots (14-cm diameter and 12-cm tall) filled with potting soil mixture (LC1 Potting Mix, Sungro Horticulture Inc., Agawam, MA, USA) at the Norman Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement Greenhouse Research Facility at Texas A&M University. The environmental conditions were set at 26/22 °C day/night temperature regime and a 14-h photoperiod. In each pot, 5 seeds were planted and thinned to one healthy seedling at 1-leaf stage. Seedlings were supplied with sufficient water and nutrients (Miracle-Gro Water Soluble All Purpose Plant Food, Scotts Miracle-Gro Products Inc., 14111 Scottslawn Road, Marysville, OH 43041). A total of 50 seedlings were established in the greenhouse and were maintained until they reached about 10 cm tall, at which point they were sprayed with 2× the field rate of nicosulfuron (63 × 2 = 126 g ai ha−1) (mixed with 0.25% v/v COC). The herbicide was applied using a track-sprayer (Research Track Sprayer, DeVries, Hollandale, MN) fitted with a flat fan nozzle (TeeJet XR110015) that was calibrated to deliver a spray volume of 140 L ha−1 at 276 kPa pressure, and at an operating speed of 4.8 kmph. All treated seedlings that survived the herbicide application at 21 days after treatment (DAT) were then used as the pollen donor in the field gene flow experiment. All plant materials were handled in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. No permissions or licenses were required for collecting the johnsongrass samples from the experimental fields.
Dose–response assays
The degree of resistance/susceptibility to nicosulfuron of the AR and AS johnsongrass biotypes were determined using a classical dose–response experiment. The assay consisted of seven rates (0, 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2×) for the AS population and nine rates (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32×) for the AR population [1 × (field recommended rate) = 63 g ai ha−1 of Accent Q]. The experimental units were arranged in a completely randomized design with four replications. Seeds of AR and AS plants were planted in plastic trays (25 × 25 cm) filled with commercial potting-soil mix (LC1 Potting Mix, Sungro Horticulture Inc., Agawam, MA, USA) and maintained at 26/22 °C day/night cycle with a 14-h photoperiod in the greenhouse. Seedlings at 1–2 leaf stage were thinned to 20 seedlings per tray; four replications each of 20 seedlings per dose were considered. The seedlings were watered and fertilized as needed. The assay was conducted twice, thus a total of 160 seedlings were screened for each dose.
The established seedlings were sprayed with the appropriate herbicide dose at the 10–15 cm tall seedling stage. The herbicide was applied using a track sprayer calibrated to deliver a spray volume of 140 L ha−1 at 4.8 kmph operating speed. Survival (%) and injury (%) were assessed at 28 DAT. Any plant that failed to grow out of the herbicide impact was considered dead. Plant injury was rated for each plot (i.e. on the 20 seedlings per rep) on a scale of 0–100%, where 0 indicates no visible impact compared to the nontreated control and 100 indicates complete death of all plants in the tray. Immediately after the visual ratings were completed, shoot biomass produced by the 20 plants from each tray was determined by harvesting all the tissues at the soil level and drying them in an oven at 60 °C for 72 h. Seedling mortality data were used for fitting dose–response curves that allowed for determining the lethal dose that caused 100% mortality of the susceptible biotype. This dose was used as a discriminant dose to distinguish between a hybrid (that confers resistance to nicosulfuron as a result of gene flow) and a selfed progeny (susceptible to nicosulfuron) in the field gene flow study.
Field experimental location and set-up
The field experiment was conducted across two ENVs in 2018 (summer and fall) and one in 2019 (fall) at the Texas A&M University Farm, Somerville (Burleson County), Texas (30° 32′ 15.4″ N 96° 25′ 49.2″ W). The study site is characterized by silty clay loam soil with an average annual rainfall of 98.2 cm. The field experiment followed the Nelder-wheel design40, i.e. concentric donor-receptor design, a widely used method for gene flow studies, wherein the pollen-donors are surrounded by the pollen-receptors (Fig. 1). In this study, the AR plants (planted in the central block of the wheel) served as the pollen-donors, whereas the AS plants (present in the spokes) served as the pollen-receptors.
Aerial view of the experimental arrangement that was used to quantify pollen-mediated gene flow from ALS-inhibitor resistant (AR) to -susceptible (AS) johnsongrass at the Texas A&M University Research Farm near College Station, Texas. AR johnsongrass plants were transplanted in the pollen-donor block of 5 m diameter at the center of the field. The surrounding pollen-receptor area was divided into four cardinal (N, E, S, W) and four ordinal (NE, SE, SW, NW) directional blocks where naturally-existing AS johnsongrass plants were used as the pollen-recipients. AS panicles exhibiting flowering synchrony with AR plants were tagged at specific distances (5–50 m, at 5 m increments) along the eight directional arms. A tall-growing biomass sorghum border was established in the perimeter of the experimental site to prevent pollen inflow from outside areas.
The center of the wheel was 5 m in diameter, and each spoke was 50 m long starting at the periphery of the central circular block. Thirty AR plants (pollen-donors) were transplanted in four concentric rings of 1, 5, 9, and 15 plants in the 5 m diameter central block, surrounded by the pollen-receptors (i.e. AS plants) (Fig. 1). The AR plants were contained within the central block during the 2 years of the field experiment by harvesting and removing all mature seeds and removing any expanding rhizomatous shoots. Further, field cultivation was completely avoided in the central block throughout the study period. Any newly emerging johnsongrass plants (seedling/rhizomatous) other than the transplanted AR plants in the central block were removed periodically by manual uprooting.
The wheel consisted of eight spokes (i.e. directional blocks) arranged in four cardinal (N, E, S, W) and four ordinal (NE, SE, NW, SW) directions (Fig. 1). The plots to quantify gene flow frequency were arranged at 0 (border of the central block), 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 m distances from the central block in all eight directions (Fig. 1). Each plot measured 3 × 2 m and the area surrounding the plots was shredded prior to the booting stage with a Rhino® RC flail shredder (RHINOAG, INC., Gibson City, IL 60936).
A tall-growing biomass sorghum border (6 m wide) was established surrounding the experimental area in all directions to prevent potential inflow of pollen from other Sorghum spp. in the nearby areas. Additionally, prevailing weather conditions, specifically wind direction, wind speed, relative humidity, and air temperature measured at 5-min intervals were obtained from a nearby weather station located within the Texas A&M research farm (http://afs102.tamu.edu/). The field did not require any specific agronomic management in terms of irrigation, fertilization, or pest management.
Flowering synchrony, tagging, and seed harvesting
At peak flowering, when > 50% of the plants in the AR block started anther dehiscence (i.e., pollen shedding), ten AS panicles (five random plants × 2 panicles per plant) that showed flowering synchrony with AR plants and displayed protruded, receptive stigma were tagged using colored ribbons at each distance and direction. At seed maturity, the tagged AS panicles were harvested separately for each distance and direction. Panicles were threshed, seeds were cleaned manually, and stored under room conditions until used in the herbicide resistance screening to facilitate after-ripening and dormancy release.
Resistance screening
The hybrid progeny produced on AS plants as a result of outcrossing with AR plants would be heterozygous for the allele harboring nicosulfuron resistance, and would exhibit survival upon exposure to the herbicide applied at the discriminant dose at which all wild type (AS) plants would die. The discriminant dose was determined using the dose–response study described above. Thus, the frequency of resistant plants in the progeny would represent outcrossing/gene flow (%).
To effectively detect the levels of gene flow from AR to AS biotypes especially at low frequencies, the minimum sample size required for resistance screening was determined based on the following formula (Eq. 1)41:
$${text{N }} = {text{ ln}}left( {{1} – P} right)/{text{ln}}left( {{1} – p} right),$$
(1)
where P is the probability of detecting a resistant progeny in the least frequent class and p is the probability of the least frequent class. Based on this formula, a minimum of 298 to as high as 916 plants were screened for each distance within each direction, allowing for a 1% detection level (p = 0.01) with a 95% (P = 0.95) confidence interval.
Approximately one-year old progeny seeds harvested from the AS plants were scarified using a sandpaper for 15–20 s to release dormancy. The seeds for each distance within each direction were planted in four replicates of plastic trays (50 × 25 cm) filled with potting soil mixture (LC1 Potting Mix, Sungro Horticulture Inc., Agawam, MA, USA). The plants were raised at the Norman Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement Greenhouse Research Facility at Texas A&M University. The greenhouse was maintained at 28/24 °C day/night temperature regime and a 14-h photoperiod. About 10–15 cm tall seedlings were sprayed with the discriminant dose of the ALS-inhibitor nicosulfuron (Accent Q, 95 g ai ha−1) using a spray chamber (Research Track Sprayer, DeVries, Hollandale, MN) fitted with a flat fan nozzle (TeeJet XR110015) that was calibrated to deliver a spray volume of 140 L ha−1 at 276 kPa pressure, operating at a speed of 4.8 kmph. At 28 DAT, percent seedling survival was determined based on the number of plants that survived the herbicide application out of the total number of plants sprayed. The number of plants in each tray was counted before spraying.
Molecular confirmation of hybrids
Leaf tissue samples were collected from thirty random surviving plants (putative resistant) in the herbicide resistance screening study for each of the three field ENVs, thus totaling 90 samples. Genomic DNA was extracted from 100 mg of young leaf tissue using the modified CTAB protocol42. The concentration of DNA was determined using a Nanodrop 1000 UV–Vis spectrophotometer (DeNovix DS-II spectrophotometer, DeNovix Inc., Wilmington, DE 19810, USA). DNA was then diluted to a concentration of 20 ng/µl for PCR assay. The nicosulfuron-resistant johnsongrass from Nebraska used in this study possessed the Trp574Leu mutation39. Hence, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) primers targeting a unique short-range haplotype of Inzen® sorghum (Val560Ile + Trp574Leu) were performed using the PCR Allele Competitive Extension (PACE) platform to confirm the resistant plants43. The SNP primers and the PACE genotyping master mix were obtained from Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT) Inc. (Coralville, IA) and 3CR Bioscience (Harlow CM20 2BU, United Kingdom), respectively. In addition to the two no-template controls (NTCs), two nicosulfuron-resistant johnsongrass, one wild-type johnsongrass, and one Inzen® sorghum were also used in the PCR.
The PCR was performed according to the manufacturer’s protocol (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, CA), with denaturation for 15 min at 94 °C, followed by 10 cycles of denaturation at 94 °C for 20 s, annealing and extension at 65–57 °C for 60 s, 30 cycles of denaturation for 20 s at 94 °C, and annealing and extension for 60 s at 57 °C. Fluorescence of the reaction products were detected using a BMG PHERAStar plate reader that uses the FAM (fluorescein amidite) and HEX (hexachloro-fluorescein) fluorophores.
Data analysis
For the dose–response assay, three-parameter sigmoidal curves (Eq. 2) were fit on the seedling mortality data for the AS and AR biotypes (with log of herbicide doses), using SigmaPlot version 14.0 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA).
$$y=b/[1+{exp}^{left(-(x-eright)/c)}],$$
(2)
where, y is the mortality (%), x is the herbicide dose (g ai ha−1), b is the slope around e, c is the lower limit (theoretical minimum for y normalized to 0%), and e = LD50 (inflection point, mid-point or estimated herbicide dose when y = 50%). Windrose plots that represented wind speed and frequency during the flowering window in each of the eight directions were created using a macro in Microsoft Excel. Progeny seedling survival (%) that represents gene flow (%) was determined using Eq. (3).
$${text{PMGF }}left( {text{%}} right){ } = { }left( frac{X}{Y} right)_{{i,j{ }}} times { }100,$$
(3)
where, X is the number of plants that survived the herbicide application, Y is the total number of plants sprayed for ith distance in jth direction.
To test whether gene flow frequencies varied among the directions, ANOVA was conducted using JMP PRO v.14 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA), based on the average gene flow frequency values in each direction; ENVs were considered as replicates in this analysis. A non-linear regression analysis for gene flow rate, describing an exponential decay function (Eq. 4), was fit using SigmaPlot based on the gene flow frequencies observed at different distances pooled across the directions and ENVs.
$$y=y0+left[atimes {exp}^{left(-btimes xright)}right],$$
(4)
where, y is the PMGF (%), x is the distance (m) from pollen source, y0 is the lower asymptote (theoretical minimum for y normalized to 0%), a is the inflection point, mid-point or estimated distance when y = 50%, and b is the slope around a.
A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to determine potential association between PMGF [overall PMGF, short-distance PMGF (5 m), and long-distance PMGF (50 m)] and the environmental parameters temperature, relative humidity, and dew point. Further, a correlation analysis was also conducted to understand the association between PMGF frequencies and specific wind parameters such as wind frequency, wind speed, and gust speed. The molecular data were analyzed using KlusterCaller 1.1 software (KBioscience).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
