in

Anthropogenic impacts on lowland tropical peatland biogeochemistry

  • Dargie, G. C. et al. Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex. Nature 542, 86–90 (2017). This study describes the large extent and huge carbon stocks of the Congo Basin peatlands.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S. E., Rieley, J. O. & Banks, C. J. Global and regional importance of the tropical peatland carbon pool. Glob. Change Biol. 17, 798–818 (2011). This is a comprehensive assessment of the extent, volume and carbon stocks of peatlands across the tropics, highlighting their importance in the global carbon cycle and key uncertainties.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, Z., Loisel, J., Brosseau, D. P., Beilman, D. W. & Hunt, S. J. Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, L13402 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gumbricht, T. et al. An expert system model for mapping tropical wetlands and peatlands reveals South America as the largest contributor. Glob. Change Biol. 23, 3581–3599 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Olsson, L. et al. Climate change and land (eds Shukla, P. R. et al.) 345–436 (IPCC, 2019).

  • Leifeld, J. & Menichetti, L. The underappreciated potential of peatlands in global climate change mitigation strategies. Nat. Commun. 9, 1071 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. et al. Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Edenhofer, O. et al.) 811–922 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014).

  • Goldstein, A. et al. Protecting irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. Nat. Clim. Chang. 10, 287–295 (2020). This study evaluates ecosystems on the basis of the size of carbon stocks that are vulnerable to release upon land-use conversion and not recoverable on timescales relevant to avoiding dangerous climate impacts; it emphasizes the high density of irrecoverable carbon in tropical peatlands.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Griscom, B. W. et al. Natural climate solutions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 114, 11645–11650 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Leifeld, J., Wüst-Galley, C. & Page, S. Intact and managed peatland soils as a source and sink of GHGs from 1850 to 2100. Nat. Clim. Chang. 9, 945–947 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate change and land (IPCC, 2019).

  • Pan, Y. et al. A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science 333, 988–993 (2011).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S., Wüst, R. & Banks, C. Past and present carbon accumulation and loss in Southeast Asian peatlands. PAGES News 18, 25–27 (2010).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S. E. et al. A record of Late Pleistocene and Holocene carbon accumulation and climate change from an equatorial peat bog (Kalimantan, Indonesia): implications for past, present and future carbon dynamics. J. Quat. Sci. 19, 625–635 (2004).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dommain, R., Couwenberg, J. & Joosten, H. Development and carbon sequestration of tropical peat domes in south-east Asia: links to post-glacial sea-level changes and Holocene climate variability. Quat. Sci. Rev. 30, 999–1010 (2011). This is a comprehensive assessment of peatland development in Southeast Asia, exploring regional differences in rates of peat formation and carbon accumulation.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruwaimana, M., Anshari, G. Z., Silva, L. C. R. & Gavin, D. G. The oldest extant tropical peatland in the world: a major carbon reservoir for at least 47,000 years. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 114027 (2020). This study compares the development of coastal and inland peatlands in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, and provides a description of the oldest known peat deposit in Southeast Asia.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Anshari, G., Kershaw, A. P., Kaars, S. V. D. & Jacobsen, G. Environmental change and peatland forest dynamics in the Lake Sentarum area, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. J. Quat. Sci. 19, 637–655 (2004).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dommain, R., Couwenberg, J. & Joosten, H. Hydrological self-regulation of domed peatlands in south-east Asia and consequences for conservation and restoration Mires Peat 6, 1–17 2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M. B. & Muthuri, F. M. Standing biomass and carbon distribution in a papyrus (Cyperus papyrus L.) swamp on Lake Naivasha, Kenya. J. Trop. Ecol. 13, 347–356 (1997).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, M. J., Jones, M. B. & Kansiime, F. Carbon and water cycles in tropical papyrus wetlands. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 15, 489–498 (2007).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Burrough, S. L., Thomas, D. S. G., Orijemie, E. A. & Willis, K. J. Landscape sensitivity and ecological change in western Zambia: the long-term perspective from dambo cut-and-fill sediments. J. Quat. Sci. 30, 44–58 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, I. J. et al. First evidence of peat domes in the Congo Basin using LiDAR from a fixed-wing drone. Remote Sens. 12, 2196 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsdorf, D. et al. Opportunities for hydrologic research in the Congo Basin. Rev. Geophys. 54, 378–409 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Biddulph, G. E. et al. Current knowledge on the Cuvette Centrale peatland complex and future research directions. Bois For. Trop. 350, 3–14 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lähteenoja, O. et al. The large Amazonian peatland carbon sink in the subsiding Pastaza–Marañón foreland basin, Peru. Glob. Change Biol. 18, 164–178 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, T. J. et al. The vegetation history of an Amazonian domed peatland. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 468, 129–141 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Draper, F. C. et al. The distribution and amount of carbon in the largest peatland complex in Amazonia. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 124017 (2014). Using a combination of remote sensing and field data, this study provides an assessment of the distribution of above- and belowground peatland carbon stocks in the Pastaza–Marañon foreland basin in Peruvian Amazonia.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, S., Rouse, G. E. & Bustin, R. M. Vegetation zones and diagnostic pollen profiles of a coastal peat swamp, Bocas del Toro, Panamá. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 128, 301–338 (1997).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sjögersten, S. et al. Coastal wetland ecosystems deliver large carbon stocks in tropical Mexico. Geoderma 403, 115173 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Joosten, H. in Tropical Peatland Ecosystems (eds Osaki, M. & Tsuji, N.) 33–48 (Springer, 2016).

  • Anderson, J. A. R. in Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen and Moor: Regional Studies (ed. Gore, A. J. P.) 191–199 (Elsevier, 1983).

  • Draper, F. C. et al. Peatland forests are the least diverse tree communities documented in Amazonia, but contribute to high regional beta-diversity. Ecography 41, 1256–1269 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. A. R. Ecology and Forest Types of The Peat Swamp Forests of Sarawak and Brunei in Relation to their Silviculture. Thesis, Univ. Edinburgh (1961).

  • Freund, C. A., Harsanto, F. A., Purwanto, A., Takahashi, H. & Harrison, M. E. Microtopographic specialization and flexibility in tropical peat swamp forest tree species. Biotropica 50, 208–214 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lampela, M. et al. Ground surface microtopography and vegetation patterns in a tropical peat swamp forest. CATENA 139, 127–136 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyamoto, K. et al. Habitat differentiation among tree species with small-scale variation of humus depth and topography in a tropical heath forest of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. J. Trop. Ecol. 19, 43–54 (2003).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Miettinen, J., Shi, C. & Liew, S. C. Land cover distribution in the peatlands of peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo in 2015 with changes since 1990. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 6, 67–78 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wijedasa, L. S. et al. Carbon emissions from South-East Asian peatlands will increase despite emission-reduction schemes. Glob. Change Biol. 24, 4598–4613 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S. E. & Hooijer, A. In the line of fire: the peatlands of Southeast Asia. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 371, 20150176.(2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hergoualc’h, K., Gutiérrez-Vélez, V. H., Menton, M. & Verchot, L. V. Characterizing degradation of palm swamp peatlands from space and on the ground: an exploratory study in the Peruvian Amazon. For. Ecol. Manag. 393, 63–73 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Horn, C. M., Vargas Paredes, V. H., Gilmore, M. P. & Endress, B. A. Spatio-temporal patterns of Mauritia flexuosa fruit extraction in the Peruvian Amazon: implications for conservation and sustainability. Appl. Geogr. 97, 98–108 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dargie, G. C. et al. Congo Basin peatlands: threats and conservation priorities. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 24, 669–686 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Grundling, P.-L. & Grootjans, A. P. in The Wetland Book. II: Distribution, Description, and Conservation (eds Finlayson, M., Milton, G., Prentice, R. & Davidson, N.) (Springer, 2018).

  • Roucoux, K. H. et al. Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation. Conserv. Biol. 31, 1283–1292 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Baird, A. J. et al. High permeability explains the vulnerability of the carbon store in drained tropical peatlands. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 1333–1339 (2017). This study finds that the permeability of ombrotrophic tropical peat is higher than expected, resulting in deep water tables in ditched tropical peatlands and associated high rates of peat oxidation.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, T. J. et al. The high hydraulic conductivity of three wooded tropical peat swamps in northeast Peru: measurements and implications for hydrological function. Hydrol. Process. 28, 3373–3387 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Tonks, A. J. et al. Impacts of conversion of tropical peat swamp forest to oil palm plantation on peat organic chemistry, physical properties and carbon stocks. Geoderma 289, 36–45 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezbahuddin, M., Grant, R. F. & Hirano, T. How hydrology determines seasonal and interannual variations in water table depth, surface energy exchange, and water stress in a tropical peatland: modeling versus measurements. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 120, 2132–2157 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurén, A. et al. Nutrient balance as a tool for maintaining yield and mitigating environmental impacts of Acacia plantation in drained tropical peatland — description of plantation simulator. Forests 12, 312 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooijer, A. et al. Subsidence and carbon loss in drained tropical peatlands. Biogeosciences 9, 1053–1071 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Anshari, G. Z., Gusmayanti, E. & Novita, N. The use of subsidence to estimate carbon loss from deforested and drained tropical peatlands in Indonesia. Forests 12, 732 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, C. D. et al. A novel low-cost, high-resolution camera system for measuring peat subsidence and water table dynamics. Front. Environ. Sci. 9, 33 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, C. D. et al. Rates and spatial variability of peat subsidence in Acacia plantation and forest landscapes in Sumatra, Indonesia. Geoderma 338, 410–421 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyt, A. M., Chaussard, E., Seppalainen, S. S. & Harvey, C. F. Widespread subsidence and carbon emissions across Southeast Asian peatlands. Nat. Geosci. 13, 435–440 (2020). Using remote sensing, this study quantifies the rate of peat subsidence and carbon loss across peatlands in Southeast Asia.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, A. R., Dommain, R., Tan, F., Heng, N. H. E. & Harvey, C. F. Carbon storage capacity of tropical peatlands in natural and artificial drainage networks. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 114009 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritzema, H., Limin, S., Kusin, K., Jauhiainen, J. & Wösten, H. Canal blocking strategies for hydrological restoration of degraded tropical peatlands in central Kalimantan, Indonesia. CATENA 114, 11–20 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooijer, A., Vernimmen, R., Visser, M. & Mawdsley, N. Flooding projections from elevation and subsidence models for oil palm plantations in the Rajang Delta peatlands, Sarawak, Malaysia (Deltares, 2015).

  • Sumarga, E., Hein, L., Hooijer, A. & Vernimmen, R. Hydrological and economic effects of oil palm cultivation in Indonesian peatlands. Ecol. Soc. 21, 52 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Evers, S., Yule, C. M., Padfield, R., O’Reilly, P. & Varkkey, H. Keep wetlands wet: the myth of sustainable development of tropical peatlands — implications for policies and management. Glob. Change Biol. 23, 534–549 (2017). This study reviews the ecosystem services provided by Southeast Asian peatlands and discusses key policy challenges for peatland management.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, Z. D., Lupascu, M. & Wijedasa, L. S. Paludiculture as a sustainable land use alternative for tropical peatlands: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 753, 142111 (2021). This study evaluates the current understanding of and opportunities for paludiculture in the context of tropical peatlands, emphasizing that tropical paludiculture will be heavily influenced by socioeconomic considerations.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Haraguchi, A. in Tropical Peatland Ecosystems (Osaki, M. & Tsuji, N.) 297–311 (Springer, 2016).

  • Wösten, J. H. M., Ismail, A. B. & van Wijk, A. L. M. Peat subsidence and its practical implications: a case study in Malaysia. Geoderma 78, 25–36 (1997).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Grealish, G. J. & Fitzpatrick, R. W. Acid sulphate soil characterization in Negara Brunei Darussalam: a case study to inform management decisions. Soil. Use Manag. 29, 432–444 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Klepper, O., Chairuddin, G. T., Iriansyah & Rijksen, H. D. Water quality and the distribution of some fishes in an area of acid sulphate soils, Kalimantan, Indonesia. Hydrobiol. Bull. 25, 217–224 (1992).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Shamshuddin, J. & Muhrizal, S. Chemical pollution in acid sulfate soils. Proc. Geol. Soc. Malaysia Annu. Geol.Conf. 2000, 231–234 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  • Suwardi. Utilization and improvement of marginal soils for agricultural development in Indonesia. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 383, 012047 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirano, T., Jauhiainen, J., Inoue, T. & Takahashi, H. Controls on the carbon balance of tropical peatlands. Ecosystems 12, 873–887 (2009).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Stumm, W. & Morgan, J. J. Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters (Wiley, 1996).

  • Billett, M. F., Garnett, M. H. & Dinsmore, K. J. Should aquatic CO evasion be included in contemporary carbon budgets for peatland ecosystems? Ecosystems 18, 471–480 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Chimner, R. A. & Ewel, K. C. A tropical freshwater wetland: II. Production, decomposition, and peat formation. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 13, 671–684 (2005).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyos-Santillan, J. et al. Getting to the root of the problem: litter decomposition and peat formation in lowland neotropical peatlands. Biogeochemistry 126, 115–129 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Könönen, M. et al. Land use increases the recalcitrance of tropical peat. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 24, 717–731 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sangok, F. E., Maie, N., Melling, L. & Watanabe, A. Evaluation on the decomposability of tropical forest peat soils after conversion to an oil palm plantation. Sci. Total Environ. 587–588, 381–388 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yule, C. M., Lim, Y. Y. & Lim, T. Y. Degradation of tropical Malaysian peatlands decreases levels of phenolics in soil and in leaves of Macaranga pruinosa. Front. Earth Sci. 4, 1–9 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, Z. et al. Peatlands and their role in the global carbon cycle. Eos 92, 97–98 (2011).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lähteenoja, O., Ruokolainen, K., Schulman, L. & Oinonen, M. Amazonian peatlands: an ignored C sink and potential source. Glob. Change Biol. 15, 2311–2320 (2009).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Garneau, M. et al. Holocene carbon dynamics of boreal and subarctic peatlands from Québec, Canada. Holocene 24, 1043–1053 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorham, E. Northern peatlands: role in the carbon cycle and probable responses to climatic warming. Ecol. Appl. 1, 182–195 (1991).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Turunen, J., Roulet, N. T., Moore, T. R. & Richard, P. J. H. Nitrogen deposition and increased carbon accumulation in ombrotrophic peatlands in eastern Canada. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 18, GB3002 (2004).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, Z. C. Northern peatland carbon stocks and dynamics: a review. Biogeosciences 9, 4071–4085 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulter, B. et al. in Wetland Carbon And Environmental Management (eds Krauss, K. W., Zhu, Z. & Stagg, C. L.) 1–20 (American Geophysical Union, 2021).

  • Honorio Coronado, E. et al. Intensive field sampling increases the known extent of carbon-rich Amazonian peatland pole forests. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 074048 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sjögersten, S. et al. Tropical wetlands: a missing link in the global carbon cycle? Carbon cycling in tropical wetlands. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 28, 1371–1386 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffis, T. J. et al. Hydrometeorological sensitivities of net ecosystem carbon dioxide and methane exchange of an Amazonian palm swamp peatland. Agric. For. Meteorol. 295, 108167 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiew, F. et al. CO2 balance of a secondary tropical peat swamp forest in Sarawak, Malaysia. Agric. For. Meteorol. 248, 494–501 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirano, T. et al. Effects of disturbances on the carbon balance of tropical peat swamp forests. Glob. Change Biol. 18, 3410–3422 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, A. C. I. et al. A Bornean peat swamp forest is a net source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 6931–6944 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Deshmukh, C. S. et al. Conservation slows down emission increase from a tropical peatland in Indonesia. Nat. Geosci. 14, 484–490 (2021). This study presented measurements of CO2 and CH4 fluxes obtained using the eddy covariance method from both intact and degraded peat swamp forest in Sumatra, Indonesia, during the 2019 ENSO drought.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiew, F. et al. Carbon dioxide balance of an oil palm plantation established on tropical peat. Agric. For. Meteorol. 295, 108189 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • McCalmont, J. et al. Short- and long-term carbon emissions from oil palm plantations converted from logged tropical peat swamp forest. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 2361–2376 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Germer, J. & Sauerborn, J. Estimation of the impact of oil palm plantation establishment on greenhouse gas balance. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 10, 697–716 (2008).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, K. et al. An assessment of oil palm plantation aboveground biomass stocks on tropical peat using destructive and non-destructive methods. Sci. Rep. 10, 2230 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wijedasa, L. S. Peat Swamp Forest Conservation in Southeast Asia. Thesis, National Univ. Singapore (2019).

  • Moore, S. et al. Deep instability of deforested tropical peatlands revealed by fluvial organic carbon fluxes. Nature 493, 660–663 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, S. et al. Fluvial organic carbon fluxes from oil palm plantations on tropical peatland. Biogeosciences 15, 7435–7450 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldron, S. et al. C mobilisation in disturbed tropical peat swamps: old DOC can fuel the fluvial efflux of old carbon dioxide, but site recovery can occur. Sci. Rep. 9, 11429 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, M. A. Organic Matter Dynamics of Coastal Peat Deposits in Sumatra, Indonesia. Thesis, Univ. British Columbia (1997).

  • Jauhiainen, J., Limin, S., Silvennoinen, H. & Vasander, H. Carbon dioxide and methane fluxes in drained tropical peat before and after hhydrological restoration. Ecology 89, 3503–3514 (2008).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jauhiainen, J., Takahashi, H., Heikkinen, J. E. P., Martikainen, P. J. & Vasander, H. Carbon fluxes from a tropical peat swamp forest floor. Glob. Change Biol. 11, 1788–1797 (2005).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yule, C. M. & Gomez, L. N. Leaf litter decomposition in a tropical peat swamp forest in peninsular Malaysia. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 17, 231–241 (2009).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Swails, E., Hertanti, D., Hergoualc’h, K., Verchot, L. & Lawrence, D. The response of soil respiration to climatic drivers in undrained forest and drained oil palm plantations in an Indonesian peatland. Biogeochemistry 142, 37–51 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishikura, K. et al. Carbon dioxide and methane emissions from peat soil in an undrained tropical peat swamp forest. Ecosystems 22, 1852–1868 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Melling, L., Tan, C. Y., Goh, K. J. & Hatano, R. Soil microbial and root respirations from three ecosystems in tropical peatland of Sarawak, Malaysia. J. Oil Palm. Res. 25, 44–57 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, H. V. et al. Greenhouse gas emissions resulting from conversion of peat swamp forest to oil palm plantation. Nat. Commun. 11, 407 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Girkin, N. T., Turner, B. L., Ostle, N. & Sjögersten, S. Root-derived CO2 flux from a tropical peatland. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 26, 985–991 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhandapani, S., Ritz, K., Evers, S., Yule, C. M. & Sjögersten, S. Are secondary forests second-rate? Comparing peatland greenhouse gas emissions, chemical and microbial community properties between primary and secondary forests in peninsular Malaysia. Sci. Total Environ. 655, 220–231 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhandapani, S. et al. Land-use changes associated with oil palm plantations impact PLFA microbial phenotypic community structure throughout the depth of tropical peats. Wetlands 40, 2351–2366 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mishra, S. et al. Microbial and metabolic profiling reveal strong influence of water table and land-use patterns on classification of degraded tropical peatlands. Biogeosciences 11, 1727–1741 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mishra, S. et al. Degradation of Southeast Asian tropical peatlands and integrated strategies for their better management and restoration. J. Appl. Ecol. 58, 1370–1387 (2021). This paper reviews current understanding of intact and degraded peatlands in Southeast Asia and proposes an approach for peatland management and restoration involving explicit consideration of interacting ecological factors and the involvement of local communities.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, K. M., Goodman, L. K. & May-Tobin, C. C. Modeling relationships between water table depth and peat soil carbon loss in Southeast Asian plantations. Environ. Res. Lett. 10, 074006 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, K. M. et al. Committed carbon emissions, deforestation, and community land conversion from oil palm plantation expansion in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 7559–7564 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Couwenberg, J., Dommain, R. & Joosten, H. Greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical peatlands in south-east Asia. Glob. Change Biol. 16, 1715–1732 (2010).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, C. D. et al. Overriding water table control on managed peatland greenhouse gas emissions. Nature 593, 548–552 (2021). Using data for CO2 and CH4 fluxes from all major peatland biomes, this paper demonstrates that greenhouse gas emissions from drained agricultural peatlands could be greatly reduced by raising water levels closer to the peat surface while maintaining productive agricultural use.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooijer, A. et al. Current and future CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in Southeast Asia. Biogeosciences 7, 1505–1514 (2010).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiraishi, T. et al. (eds) 2013 Supplement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories: wetlands (IPCC, 2014).

  • Jauhiainen, J., Kerojoki, O., Silvennoinen, H., Limin, S. & Vasander, H. Heterotrophic respiration in drained tropical peat is greatly affected by temperature — a passive ecosystem cooling experiment. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 105013 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, F. C., Kho, L. K., Hill, T. C., Cornulier, T. & Teh, Y. A. Carbon emissions from oil palm plantations on peat soil. Front. For. Glob. Change https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2019.00037 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Deshmukh, C. S. et al. Impact of forest plantation on methane emissions from tropical peatland. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 2477–2495 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, G. X. et al. How do land use practices affect methane emissions from tropical peat ecosystems? Agric. For. Meteorol. 282–283, 107869 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Pangala, S. R. et al. Large emissions from floodplain trees close the Amazon methane budget. Nature 552, 230–234 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Pangala, S. R., Moore, S., Hornibrook, E. R. C. & Gauci, V. Trees are major conduits for methane egress from tropical forested wetlands. N. Phytol. 197, 524–531 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hergoualc’h, K. et al. Spatial and temporal variability of soil N2O and CH4 fluxes along a degradation gradient in a palm swamp peat forest in the Peruvian Amazon. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 7198–7216 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Teh, Y. A., Murphy, W. A., Berrio, J.-C., Boom, A. & Page, S. E. Seasonal variability in methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from tropical peatlands in the western Amazon basin. Biogeosciences 14, 3669–3683 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyos-Santillan, J. et al. Evaluation of vegetation communities, water table, and peat composition as drivers of greenhouse gas emissions in lowland tropical peatlands. Sci. Total Environ. 688, 1193–1204 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • van Haren, J. et al. A versatile gas flux chamber reveals high tree stem CH4 emissions in Amazonian peatland. Agric. For. Meteorol. 307, 108504 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sjögersten, S. et al. Temperature response of ex-situ greenhouse gas emissions from tropical peatlands: interactions between forest type and peat moisture conditions. Geoderma 324, 47–55 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Girkin, N. T. et al. Spatial variability of organic matter properties determines methane fluxes in a tropical forested peatland. Biogeochemistry 142, 231–245 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Girkin, N. T., Turner, B. L., Ostle, N. & Sjögersten, S. Composition and concentration of root exudate analogues regulate greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical peat. Soil. Biol. Biochem. 127, 280–285 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Girkin, N. T., Vane, C. H., Turner, B. L., Ostle, N. J. & Sjögersten, S. Root oxygen mitigates methane fluxes in tropical peatlands. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 064013 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jauhiainen, J., Silvennoinen, H., Könönen, M., Limin, S. & Vasander, H. Management driven changes in carbon mineralization dynamics of tropical peat. Biogeochemistry 129, 115–132 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, E. L. et al. Contribution of subsurface peat to CO2 and CH fluxes in a neotropical peatland. Glob. Change Biol. 17, 2867–2881 (2011).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Prananto, J. A., Minasny, B., Comeau, L., Rudiyanto, R. & Grace, P. Drainage increases CO2 and N2O emissions from tropical peat soils. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 4583–4600 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Peacock, M. et al. Global importance of methane emissions from drainage ditches and canals. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 044010 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Chuang, P.-C. et al. Methane fluxes from tropical coastal lagoons surrounded by mangroves, Yucatán, Mexico. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 122, 1156–1174 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jauhiainen, J. & Silvennoinen, H. Diffusion GHG fluxes at tropical peatland drainage canal water surfaces. Suoseura 63, 93–105 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yupi, H. M., Inoue, T. & Bathgate, J. Concentrations, loads and yields of organic carbon from two tropical peat swamp forest streams in Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Mires Peat 18, 1–15 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Y., Evans, C. D., Chen, Y., Chang, K. Y. W. & Martin, P. Extensive remineralization of peatland-derived dissolved organic carbon and ocean acidification in the Sunda Shelf Sea, Southeast Asia. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 126, e2021JC017292 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Alkhatib, M., Jennerjahn, T. C. & Samiaji, J. Biogeochemistry of the Dumai River estuary, Sumatra, Indonesia, a tropical black-water river. Limnol. Oceanogr. 52, 2410–2417 (2007).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Gandois, L. et al. From canals to the coast: dissolved organic matter and trace metal composition in rivers draining degraded tropical peatlands in Indonesia. Biogeosciences 17, 1897–1909 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Rixen, T. et al. The Siak, a tropical black water river in central Sumatra on the verge of anoxia. Biogeochemistry 90, 129–140 (2008).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Miettinen, J., Hooijer, A., Vernimmen, R., Liew, S. C. & Page, S. E. From carbon sink to carbon source: extensive peat oxidation in insular Southeast Asia since 1990. Environ. Res. Lett. 12, 024014 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Loisel, J. et al. Expert assessment of future vulnerability of the global peatland carbon sink. Nat. Clim. Chang. 11, 70–77 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Boysen, L. R. et al. Global and regional effects of land-use change on climate in 21st century simulations with interactive carbon cycle. Earth Syst. Dyn. 5, 309–319 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sitch, S. et al. Recent trends and drivers of regional sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Biogeosciences 12, 653–679 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchard, E. T. A. The tropical forest carbon cycle and climate change. Nature 559, 527–534 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Naidu, D. G. T. & Bagchi, S. Greening of the Earth does not compensate for rising soil heterotrophic respiration under climate change. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 2029–2038 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, W. et al. Future precipitation changes and their implications for tropical peatlands. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, 01403 (2007).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Barichivich, J. et al. Recent intensification of Amazon flooding extremes driven by strengthened Walker circulation. Sci. Adv. 4, eaat8785 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Marengo, J. A. et al. Changes in climate and land use over the Amazon region: current and future variability and trends. Front. Earth Sci. 6, 228 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, A. R. et al. How temporal patterns in rainfall determine the geomorphology and carbon fluxes of tropical peatlands. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 114, E5187–E5196 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cai, W. et al. Increased variability of eastern Pacific El Niño under greenhouse warming. Nature 564, 201–206 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Rifai, S. W., Li, S. & Malhi, Y. Coupling of El Niño events and long-term warming leads to pervasive climate extremes in the terrestrial tropics. Environ. Res. Lett. 14, 105002 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Girkin, N. T. et al. Interactions between labile carbon, temperature and land use regulate carbon dioxide and methane production in tropical peat. Biogeochemistry 147, 87–97 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, L. E. S., Bhagwat, S. A. & Willis, K. J. Long-term disturbance dynamics and resilience of tropical peat swamp forests. J. Ecol. 103, 16–30 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, D. et al. The geochemistry of major and selected trace elements in a forested peat bog, Kalimantan, SE Asia, and its implications for past atmospheric dust deposition. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 66, 2307–2323 (2002).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lähteenoja, O. & Page, S. High diversity of tropical peatland ecosystem types in the Pastaza-Marañón basin, Peruvian Amazonia. J. Geophys. Res. 116, G02025 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  • Roucoux, K. H. et al. Vegetation development in an Amazonian peatland. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 374, 242–255 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lampela, M., Jauhiainen, J. & Vasander, H. Surface peat structure and chemistry in a tropical peat swamp forest. Plant. Soil. 382, 329–347 (2014).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S. E., Rieley, J. O., Shotyk, Ø. W. & Weiss, D. Interdependence of peat and vegetation in a tropical peat swamp forest. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 354, 1885–1897 (1999).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sjögersten, S., Cheesman, A. W., Lopez, O. & Turner, B. L. Biogeochemical processes along a nutrient gradient in a tropical ombrotrophic peatland. Biogeochemistry 104, 147–163 (2011).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yule, C. M. Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in Indo-Malayan peat swamp forests. Biodivers. Conserv. 19, 393–409 (2010).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Basilier, K. Moss-associated nitrogen fixation in some mire and coniferous forest environments around Uppsala, Sweden. Lindbergia 5, 84–88 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ong, C. S. P., Juan, J. C. & Yule, C. M. Litterfall production and chemistry of Koompassia malaccensis and Shorea uliginosa in a tropical peat swamp forest: plant nutrient regulation and climate relationships. Trees 29, 527–537 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wüst, R. A. J. & Bustin, R. M. Opaline and Al–Si phytoliths from a tropical mire system of West Malaysia: abundance, habit, elemental composition, preservation and significance. Chem. Geol. 200, 267–292 (2003).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuzil, S. G., Cecil, C. B., Kane, J. S. & Soedjono, K. in Modern and Ancient Coal-Forming Environments Vol. 286 (Geological Society of America, 1993).

  • Too, C. C., Keller, A., Sickel, W., Lee, S. M. & Yule, C. M. Microbial community structure in a Malaysian tropical peat swamp forest: the influence of tree species and depth. Front. Microbiol. 9, 2859 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulistiyanto, Y. Nutrient Dynamics in Different Sub-types of Peat Swamp Forest in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Thesis, Univ. Nottingham (2005).

  • Hoyos Santillán, J. Controls of Carbon Turnover in Tropical Peatlands. Thesis, Univ. Nottingham (2014).

  • Damman, A. W. H. Distribution and movement of elements in ombrotrophic peat bogs. Oikos 30, 480–495 (1978).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Laiho, R. & Laine, J. Nitrogen and phosphorus stores in peatlands drained for forestry in Finland. Scand. J. For. Res. 9, 251–260 (1994).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, M., Moore, T. R., Talbot, J. & Riley, J. L. The stoichiometry of carbon and nutrients in peat formation. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 29, 113–121 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkins, S. B. et al. Tropical peatland carbon storage linked to global latitudinal trends in peat recalcitrance. Nat. Commun. 9, 3640 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, C. R., Liew, K. C. & Yule, C. M. Structural and functional changes with depth in microbial communities in a tropical Malaysian peat swamp forest. Microb. Ecol. 57, 402–412 (2009).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, S. & Horn, M. A. Microbial CH4 and NO consumption in acidic wetlands. Front. Microbiol. 3, 78 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Golovchenko, A. V., Tikhonova, E. Y. & Zvyagintsev, D. G. Abundance, biomass, structure, and activity of the microbial complexes of minerotrophic and ombrotrophic peatlands. Microbiology 76, 630–637 (2007).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Martikainen, P. J., Nykänen, H., Crill, P. & Silvola, J. Effect of a lowered water table on nitrous oxide fluxes from northern peatlands. Nature 366, 51–53 (1993).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, E. A., Keller, M., Erickson, H. E., Verchot, L. V. & Veldkamp, E. Testing a conceptual model of soil emissions of nitrous and nitric oxides. Bioscience 50, 667 (2000).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubol, S., Silver, W. L. & Bellin, A. Hydrologic control on redox and nitrogen dynamics in a peatland soil. Sci. Total Environ. 432, 37–46 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jauhiainen, J. et al. Nitrous oxide fluxes from tropical peat with different disturbance history and management. Biogeosciences 9, 1337–1350 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Könönen, M., Jauhiainen, J., Laiho, R., Kusin, K. & Vasander, H. Physical and chemical properties of tropical peat under stabilised land uses. Mires Peat 16, 1–13 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chotimah, H., Jaya, A., Suparto, H., Saraswati, D. & Nawansyah, W. Utilizing organic fertilizers on two types of soil to improve growth and yield of Bawang Dayak (Eleutherine americana Merr). Agrivita J. Agric. Sci. 43, 164–173 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohidin, H. et al. Optimum levels of N, P, and K nutrition for oil palm seedlings grown in tropical peat soil. J. Plant. Nutr. 42, 1461–1471 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutert, E., Fairhurst, T. H. & Von Uexküll, H. R. Agronomic management of oil palms on deep peat. Better. Crop. Int. 13, 22–27 (1999).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashim, S. A., Teh, C. B. S. & Ahmed, O. H. Influence of water table depths, nutrients leaching losses, subsidence of tropical peat soil and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) seedling growth. Malays. J. Soil. Sci. 23, 13–30 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  • Oktarita, S., Hergoualc’h, K., Anwar, S. & Verchot, L. V. Substantial N2O emissions from peat decomposition and N fertilization in an oil palm plantation exacerbated by hotspots. Environ. Res. Lett. 12, 104007 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyos-Santillan, J. et al. Root oxygen loss from Raphia taedigera palms mediates greenhouse gas emissions in lowland neotropical peatlands. Plant. Soil. 404, 47–60 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatano, R. Impact of land use change on greenhouse gases emissions in peatland: a review. Int. Agrophys. 33, 167–173 (2019). This study reviews the impacts of changes in water-table level and nitrogen inputs on greenhouse gas emissions in tropical and northern peatlands and evaluates the optimal water-table level for minimizing emissions.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Zawawi, N. Z. et al. The effect of nitrogen fertiliser on nitrous oxide emission in oil palm plantation. Proc. 15th Int. Peat Congress 355, 515–518 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  • Turetsky, M. R. et al. Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss. Nat. Geosci. 8, 11–14 (2015). This paper reviews peatland vulnerability to burning, fire-driven carbon emissions and current and future risks of peatland fires.

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu, Y. et al. Review of emissions from smouldering peat fires and their contribution to regional haze episodes. Int. J. Wildland Fire 27, 293–312 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Huijnen, V. et al. Fire carbon emissions over maritime southeast Asia in 2015 largest since 1997. Sci. Rep. 6, 26886 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. E. L., Evers, S., Yule, C. M. & Gan, J. Y. In situ tropical peatland fire emission factors and their variability, as determined by field measurements in peninsula Malaysia. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 32, 18–31 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Stockwell, C. E. et al. Field measurements of trace gases and aerosols emitted by peat fires in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, during the 2015 El Niño. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 11711–11732 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Betha, R. et al. Chemical speciation of trace metals emitted from Indonesian peat fires for health risk assessment. Atmos. Res. 122, 571–578 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Breulmann, G. et al. Heavy metals in emergent trees and pioneers from tropical forest with special reference to forest fires and local pollution sources in Sarawak, Malaysia. Sci. Total Environ. 285, 107–115 (2002).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Othman, M. & Latif, M. T. Dust and gas emissions from small-scale peat combustion. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 13, 1045–1059 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • See, S. W., Balasubramanian, R. & Wang, W. A study of the physical, chemical, and optical properties of ambient aerosol particles in Southeast Asia during hazy and nonhazy days. J. Geophys. Res. 111, D10S08 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nikonovas, T., Spessa, A., Doerr, S. H., Clay, G. D. & Mezbahuddin, S. Near-complete loss of fire-resistant primary tropical forest cover in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Commun. Earth Env. 1, 65 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, R. D., van der Werf, G. R. & Shen, S. S. P. Human amplification of drought-induced biomass burning in Indonesia since 1960. Nat. Geosci. 2, 185–188 (2009).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Astiani, D., Taherzadeh, M. J., Gusmayanti, E., Widiastuti, T. & Burhanuddin, B. Local knowledge on landscape sustainable-hydrological management reduces soil CO2 emission, fire risk and biomass loss in west Kalimantan peatland, Indonesia. Biodiversiitas J. Biol. Divers. 20, 725–731 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattau, M. E. et al. Sources of anthropogenic fire ignitions on the peat-swamp landscape in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Glob. Environ. Change 39, 205–219 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, R. B., Naylor, R. L., Higgins, M. M. & Falcon, W. P. Causes of Indonesia’s forest fires. World Dev. 127, 104717 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, R. D. & Shen, S. S. P. Predictability of carbon emissions from biomass burning in Indonesia from 1997 to 2006. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 113, G04024 (2008).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sloan, S., Locatelli, B., Wooster, M. J. & Gaveau, D. L. A. Fire activity in Borneo driven by industrial land conversion and drought during El Niño periods, 1982–2010. Glob. Environ. Change 47, 95–109 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S. E. et al. The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997. Nature 420, 61–65 (2002).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. The cost of fire: an economic analysis of Indonesia’s 2015 fire crisis (World Bank, 2016).

  • Tacconi, L. Preventing fires and haze in Southeast Asia. Nat. Clim. Chang. 6, 640–643 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lupascu, M., Akhtar, H., Smith, T. E. L. & Sukri, R. S. Post-fire carbon dynamics in the tropical peat swamp forests of Brunei reveal long-term elevated CH4 flux. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 5125–5145 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, L. E. Influence of Fire on Peat Organic Matter from Indonesian Tropical Peatlands. Thesis, Univ. Leicester (2013).

  • Saharjo, B. H. & Nurhayati, A. D. Changes in chemical and physical properties of hemic peat under fire-based shifting cultivation. Tropics 14, 263–269 (2005).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhandapani, S. & Evers, S. Oil palm ‘slash-and-burn’ practice increases post-fire greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient concentrations in burnt regions of an agricultural tropical peatland. Sci. Total Environ. 742, 140648 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Konecny, K. et al. Variable carbon losses from recurrent fires in drained tropical peatlands. Glob. Change Biol. 22, 1469–1480 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Akhtar, H. et al. Significant sedge-mediated methane emissions from degraded tropical peatlands. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 014002 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rein, G. in Fire Phenomena and the Earth System (ed. Belcher, C. M.) 15–33 (Wiley, 2013).

  • Graham, L. L. B. & Page, S. E. A limited seed bank in both natural and degraded tropical peat swamp forest: the implications for restoration. Mires Peat 22, 02 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, E. B. et al. Microbes as engines of ecosystem function: when does community structure enhance predictions of ecosystem processes? Front. Microbiol. 7, 214 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S. et al. Restoration ecology of lowland tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia: current knowledge and future research directions. Ecosystems 12, 888–905 (2009).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sazawa, K. et al. Impact of peat fire on the soil and export of dissolved organic carbon in tropical peat soil, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. ACS Earth Space Chem. 2, 692–701 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dove, N. C. & Hart, S. C. Fire reduces fungal species richness and in situ mycorrhizal colonization: a meta-analysis. Fire Ecol. 13, 37–65 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Veldkamp, E., Schmidt, M., Powers, J. S. & Corre, M. D. Deforestation and reforestation impacts on soils in the tropics. Nat. Rev. Earth Env. 1, 590–605 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Qie, L. et al. Long-term carbon sink in Borneo’s forests halted by drought and vulnerable to edge effects. Nat. Commun. 8, 1966 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Giesen, W. & Sari, E. N. N. Tropical peatland restoration report: the Indonesian case. MCA Indonesia https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30049.40808 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dohong, A., Abdul Aziz, A. & Dargusch, P. A review of techniques for effective tropical peatland restoration. Wetlands 38, 275–292 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Shell. Redd+ Katingan Mentaya, Indonesia. Shell https://www.shell.co.uk/motorist/make-the-change-drive-carbon-neutral/redd-plus-katingan-mentaya-indonesia.html (2021).

  • Uda, S. K., Hein, L. & Sumarga, E. Towards sustainable management of Indonesian tropical peatlands. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 25, 683–701 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wichtmann, W., Tanneberger, F., Wichmann, S. & Joosten, H. Paludiculture is paludifuture: climate, biodiversity and economic benefits from agriculture and forestry on rewetted peatland. Peatl. Int. 1, 48–51 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • Giesen, W. in Tropical Peatland Eco-Management (eds Osaki, M., Tsuji, N., Foead, N. & Rieley, J.) 411–441 (Springer, 2021).

  • Shurpali, N. J. et al. Atmospheric impact of bioenergy based on perennial crop (reed canary grass, Phalaris arundinaceae, L.) cultivation on a drained boreal organic soil. GCB Bioenergy 2, 130–138 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, I. T. et al. Improving estimates of tropical peatland area, carbon storage, and greenhouse gas fluxes. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 23, 327–346 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Anda, M. et al. Revisiting tropical peatlands in Indonesia: semi-detailed mapping, extent and depth distribution assessment. Geoderma 402, 115235 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Saxon, E. C., Neuzil, S. G., Biladi, D. B. C., Kinser, J. & Sheppard, S. M. 3D mapping of lowland coastal peat domes in Indonesia. Mires Peat 27, 1–18 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Silvestri, S. et al. Quantification of peat thickness and stored carbon at the landscape scale in tropical peatlands: a comparison of airborne geophysics and an empirical topographic method. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 124, 3107–3123 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernimmen, R. et al. Mapping deep peat carbon stock from a LiDAR based DTM and field measurements, with application to eastern Sumatra. Carbon Balance Manag. 15, 4 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, R., Chapman, S. J. & Artz, R. R. E. Microbial communities in natural and disturbed peatlands: a review. Soil. Biol. Biochem. 57, 979–994 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, E. S. et al. Characterization of bacterial and fungal communities reveals novel consortia in tropical oligotrophic peatlands. Microb. Ecol. 82, 188–201 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Finn, D. R. et al. Methanogens and methanotrophs show nutrient-dependent community assemblage patterns across tropical peatlands of the Pastaza–Marañón Basin, Peruvian Amazonia. Front. Microbiol. 11, 746 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Troxler, T. G. et al. Patterns of soil bacteria and canopy community structure related to tropical peatland development. Wetlands 32, 769–782 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Tripathi, B. M. et al. Distinctive tropical forest variants have unique soil microbial communities, but not always low microbial diversity. Front. Microbiol. 7, 376 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwon, M. J., Haraguchi, A. & Kang, H. Long-term water regime differentiates changes in decomposition and microbial properties in tropical peat soils exposed to the short-term drought. Soil. Biol. Biochem. 60, 33–44 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadi, A. et al. Effects of land-use change in tropical peat soil on the microbial population and emission of greenhouse gases. Microbes Env. 16, 79–86 (2001).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kusai, N. A., Ayob, Z., Maidin, M. S. T., Safari, S. & Ahmad Ali, S. R. Characterization of fungi from different ecosystems of tropical peat in Sarawak, Malaysia. Rendiconti Lincei Sci. Fis. E 29, 469–482 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuhada, S. N., Salim, S., Nobilly, F., Zubaid, A. & Azhar, B. Logged peat swamp forest supports greater macrofungal biodiversity than large-scale oil palm plantations and smallholdings. Ecol. Evol. 7, 7187–7200 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, B. et al. The microbial diversity and structure in peatland forest in Indonesia. Soil. Use Manag. 36, 123–138 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Moyersoen, B., Becker, P. & Alexander, I. J. Are ectomycorrhizas more abundant than arbuscular mycorrhizas in tropical heath forests? N. Phytol. 150, 591–599 (2001).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Muliyani, R. B., Sastrahidayat, I. R., Abdai, A. L. & Djauhari, S. Exploring ectomycorrhiza in peat swamp forest of Nyaru Menteng Palangka Raya Central Borneo. J. Biodivers. Environ. Sci. 5, 133–145 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  • Turjaman, M. et al. Improvement of early growth of two tropical peat-swamp forest tree species Ploiarium alternifolium and Calophyllum hosei by two arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi under greenhouse conditions. New Forests 36, 1–12 (2008).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Tawaraya, K. et al. Arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of tree species grown in peat swamp forests of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. For. Ecol. Manag. 182, 381–386 (2003).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenner, N. & Freeman, C. Drought-induced carbon loss in peatlands. Nat. Geosci. 4, 895–900 (2011).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuwati, T. W. & Putri, W. S. Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhiza spores under Shorea balangeran (Korth.) Burck. plantation as bioindicator for the revegetation success. J. Galam 1, 15–26 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, L. L. B., Turjaman, M. & Page, S. E. Shorea balangeran and Dyera polyphylla (syn. Dyera lowii) as tropical peat swamp forest restoration transplant species: effects of mycorrhizae and level of disturbance. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 21, 307–321 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 


  • Source: Ecology - nature.com

    Energy storage important to creating affordable, reliable, deeply decarbonized electricity systems

    Barcoding and species delimitation of Iranian freshwater crabs of the Potamidae family (Decapoda: Brachyura)