
Krause, J. & Ruxton, G. D. Living in groups (Oxford University Press, 2002).
Goodale, E. et al. The structure of mixed-species bird flocks, and their response to anthropogenic disturbance, with special reference to East Asia. Avian. Res. 6, 14 (2015).
Goodale, E., Beuchamp, G. & Ruxton, G. D. Mixed-Species Groups of Animals: Behavior, Community Structure, and Conservation. (Academic Press, 2017).
Eguchi, K., Yamagishi, S. & Randrianasolo, V. The composition and foraging behaviour of mixed-species flocks of forest-living birds in Madagascar. Ibis 135, 91–96 (1993).
Goodale, E. et al. Regional variation in the composition and structure of mixed-species bird flocks in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. Curr. Sci. India 97, 648–663 (2009).
Sridhar, H. et al. Positive relationships between association strength and phenotypic similarity characterize the assembly of mixed-species bird flocks worldwide. Am. Nat. 180, 777–790 (2012).
Hermann, H. R. Dominance and Aggression in Humans and Other Animals: The Great Game of Life (Academic Press, 2017).
Pulliam, H. R. On the advantages of flocking. J. Theor. Biol. 38, 419–422 (1973).
Elgar, M. A. Predator vigilance and group size in mammals and birds: a critical review of the empirical evidence. Biol. Rev. 64, 13–33 (1989).
Lima, S. Back to the basics of anti-predatory vigilance: the group-size effect. Anim. Behav. 49, 11–20 (1995).
Olson, R. S., Haley, P. B., Dyer, F. C. & Adami, C. Exploring the evolution of a trade-off between vigilance and foraging in group-living organisms. Roy. Soc. Open Sci. 2, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150135 (2015).
Ekman, J. Ecology of non-breeding social systems of Parus. Wilson Bull. 101, 263–288 (1989).
Matthysen, E. Nonbreeding social organization in Parus. Curr Ornithol. 7, 209–249 (1990).
Beauchamp, G. Social predation: How group living benefits predators and prey (Academic Press, 2014).
MacArthur, R. & Levins, R. The limiting similarity, convergence, and divergence of coexisting species. Am. Nat. 101, 377–385 (1967).
Dhondt, A. A. Interspecific Competition in Birds (Oxford University Press, 2011).
Gil, M. A., Emberts, Z., Jones, H. & St Mary, C. M. Social information on fear and food drives animal grouping and fitness. Am. Nat. 189, 227–241 (2017).
Sridhar, H. & Guttal, V. Friendship across species borders: factors that facilitate and constrain heterospecific sociality. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 373, 20170014 (2018).
Krams, I., Krama, T., Freeberg, T. M., Kullberg, C. & Lucas, J. R. Linking social complexity and vocal complexity: a parid perspective. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B 367, 1879–1891 (2012).
Suhonen, J. Risk of predation and foraging sites of individuals in mixed-species tit flocks. Anim. Behav. 45, 1193–1198 (1993).
Suhonen, J. Predation risk influences the use of foraging sites by tits. Ecology 74, 1197–1203 (1993).
Hogstad, O. The influence of energy stress on social organization and behaviour of willow tits Parus montanus. Fauna Norv. Ser. C. 11, 89–94 (1988).
Hogstad, O. Advantages of social foraging of willow tits Parus montanus. Ibis 130, 275–283 (1988).
Krams, I. A. Predation risk and shifts of foraging sites in mixed willow and crested tit flocks. J. Avian Biol. 27, 153–156 (1996).
Ekman, J., Cederholm, G. & Askenmo, C. Spacing and survival in winter groups of willow tit Parus montanus Conrad and crested tit Parus cristatus L. – a removal study. J Anim Ecol 50, 1–9 (1981).
Koivula, K. & Orell, M. Social rank and winter survival in the willow tit Parus montanus. Ornis Fenn 65, 114–120 (1988).
Koivula, K., Orell, M. & Rytkönen, S. Winter survival and breeding success of dominant and subordinate willow tits Parus montanus. Ibis 138, 624–629 (1996).
Ekman, J. Tree use and predator vulnerability of wintering passerines. Ornis Scand. 17, 261–267 (1986).
Hogstad, O. Subordination in mixed-age bird flocks-a removal study. Ibis 131, 128–134 (1989).
Lahti, K. Social dominance and survival in flocking passerine birds: a review with an emphasis on the willow tit Parus montanus. Ornis Fenn. 75, 1–17 (1998).
Rodríguez, A., Jansson, G. & Andrén, H. Composition of an avian guild in spatially structured habitats supports a competition–colonization trade-off. Proc. Roy. Soc. B. 274, 1403–1411 (2007).
Speakman, J. R. The evolution of body fatness: trading off disease and predation risk. J. Exp. Biol. 221, jeb167254 (2018).
Ekman, J. B. & Hake, M. K. Monitoring starvation risk: adjustments of body reserves in greenfinches (Carduelis chloris L.) during periods of unpredictable foraging success. Behav. Ecol. 1, 62–67 (1990).
Krams, I. Rank-dependent fattening strategies of willow tit Parus montanus and crested tit P. cristatus mixed flock members. Ornis Fenn. 75, 19–26 (1998).
Witter, M. S., Cuthill, I. C. & Bonser, R. H. C. Experimental investigations of mass-dependent predation risk in the European starling, Sturnus vulgaris. Anim Behav 48, 201–222 (1994).
Krams, I. Mass-dependent take-off ability in wintering great tits (Parus major): comparison of top-ranked adult males and subordinate juvenile females. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 51, 345–349 (2002).
Hogstad, O. Social rank in winter flocks of willow tits Parus montanus. Ibis 129, 1–9 (1987).
Freeberg, T. M. Social complexity can drive vocal complexity: group size influences vocal information in Carolina chickadees. Psychol. Sci. 17, 557–561 (2006).
Grabowska-Zhang, A. M., Sheldon, B. C. & Hinde, C. A. Long-term familiarity promotes joining in neighbour nest defence. Biol. Lett. 8, 544–546 (2012).
Goodale, E., Beauchamp, G., Magrath, R., Nieh, J. C. & Ruxton, G. D. Interspecific information transfer influences animal community structure. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 354–361 (2010).
Firth, J. & Sheldon, B. C. Social carry-over effects underpin trans-seasonally linked structure in a wild bird population. Ecol. Lett. 19, 1324–1332 (2016).
Freeberg, T. M., Dunbar, R. I. M. & Ord, T. J. Social complexity as a proximate and ultimate factor in communicative complexity. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B. 367, 1785–1801 (2012).
Chazdon, R. L. et al. The potential for species conservation in tropical secondary forests. Conserv. Biol. 23, 1406–1417, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01338.x (2009).
Griesser, M. & Nystrand, M. Vigilance and predation of a forest-living bird species depend on large-scale habitat structure. Behav. Ecol. 20, 709–715 (2009).
Barlow, J. et al. Quantifying the biodiversity value of tropical primary, secondary, and plantation forests. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 18555–18560 (2007).
Dolby, A. S. & Grubb, T. C. Jr. Benefits to satellite members in mixed-species foraging groups: an experimental analysis. Anim. Behav. 56, 501–509 (1998).
Jullien, M. & Clobert, J. The survival value of flocking in neotropical birds: reality or fiction? Ecology 81, 3416–3430 (2000).
Farine, D. R., Garroway, C. J. & Sheldon, B. C. Social network analysis of mixed-species flocks: Exploring the structure and evolution of interspecific social behaviour. Anim. Behav. 84, 1271–1277 (2012).
Farine, D. R. & Milburn, P. J. Social organisation of thornbill-dominated mixed-species flocks using social network analysis. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 67, 321–330 (2013).
Hino, T. Intraspecific differences in benefits from feeding in mixed-species flocks. J. Avian Biol. 31, 441–446 (2000).
Marra, P. P., Sherry, T. W. & Holmes, R. T. Territorial exclusion by a long-distance migrant warbler in Jamaica: a removal experiment with American redstarts (Setophaga ruticilla). Auk 110, 565–572 (1993).
Gibson, R. M., Aspbury, A. S. & McDaniel, L. L. Active formation of mixed-species grouse leks: a role for predation in lek evolution? Proc. Roy. Soc. B. 269, 2503–2507 (2002).
Weise, C. M. & Meyer, J. R. Juvenile dispersal and development of site-fidelity in the black-capped chickadee. Auk 96, 40–55 (1979).
Strier, K. B. Primate Behavioral Ecology (Routledge, 2016).
Jansson, C. & von Brömssen, A. Winter decline of spiders and insects in spruce Picea abies and its relation to predation by birds. Holarct Ecol. 4, 82–93 (1981).
Suhonen, J., Alatalo, R. V., Carlson, A. & Höglund, J. Food resource distribution and the organization of the Parus guild in a spruce forest. Ornis Scand 23, 467–474 (1992).
Pravosudov, V. V. Individual differences in foraging and storing behaviour in Siberian tit Parus cinctus Bodd. and willow tit Parus montanus Bald. Soviet. J. Ecol. 4, 60–64 (1986).
Sherry, D., Avery, D. M. & Stevens, A. The spacing of stored food by marsh tits. Z Tierpsychol 8, 153–162 (1982).
Stevens, T. A. & Krebs, J. R. Retrieval of stored see& by marsh its (Parus palustris) in the field. Ibis 128, 513–525 (1986).
Inki, K. & Suhonen, J. Characteristics of cache sites most likely to be robbed by willow tits (Parus montanus). Condor 95, 742–744 (1993).
Smith, S. M. The Black-capped Chickadee: Behavioral Ecology and Natural History (Cornell University Press, 1991).
Krams, I. Long-range call use in dominance-structured crested tit Parus cristatus winter groups. J. Avian Biol. 31, 15–19 (2000).
Ward, A. & Webster, M. Sociality: The Behaviour of Group-Living Animals (Springer, 2016).
Nilsson, J. A. & Smith, H. Effects of dispersal date on winter flock establishment and social dominance in marsh tits Parus palustris. J. Anim. Ecol. 57, 917–928 (1988).
Tóth, Z., Tuliozi, B., Baldan, D., Hoi, H. & Griggio, M. The effect of social connections on the discovery of multiple hidden food patches in a bird species. Sci. Rep. 7, 816, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-00929-8 (2017).
Loukola, O. J., Seppänen, J.-T., Krams, I., Torvinen, S. S. & Forsman, J. T. Observed fitness may affect niche overlap in competing species via selective social information use. Am. Nat. 182, 474–483, https://doi.org/10.1086/671815 (2014).
Mineka, S., Gunnar, M. & Champoux, M. Control and early socioemotional development: Infant rhesus monkeys reared in controllable versus uncontrollable environments. Child Developm. 57, 1241–1256 (1986).
Vellucci, S.V. Primate social behavior: anxiety or depression in Psychopharmacology of Allxiolylics and Anlidepressants (ed. File, S. E.) 83–105, (Pergamon Press, 1991).
Carlson, B. A. Early life experiences have complex and long-lasting effects on behaviour. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 31, 11571–11573 (2017).
Dugatkin, L. A. Winner and loser effects and the structure of dominance hierarchies. Behav. Ecol. 8, 583–587 (1997).
Drummond, H. & Osorno, J. L. Training siblings to be submissive losers: dominance between booby nestlings. Anim. Behav. 44, 881–893 (1992).
Mönkkönen, M., Forsman, J. T. & Helle, P. Mixed species foraging aggregations and heterospecific attraction in boreal bird communities. Oikos 77, 127–136 (1996).
Fuxjager, M. J. et al. Winning territorial disputes selectively enhances androgen sensitivity in neural pathways related to motivation and social aggression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107, 12393–12398 (2010).
Colléter, M. & Brown, C. Personality traits predict hierarchy rank in male rainbowfish. Anim Behav 81, 1231–1237 (2011).
Kurvers, R. H. J. M. et al. Personality differences explain leadership in barnacle geese. Anim. Behav. 78, 447–453 (2009).
Gavrilets, S. On the evolutionary origins of the egalitarian syndrome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 14069–14074 (2012).
Rendenieks, Z., Nikodemus, O. & Brūmelis, G. Dynamics in forest patterns during times of forest policy changes in Latvia. European. J. Forest. Res. 134, 819–832 (2015).
Rytkönen, S. & Krams, I. Does foraging behaviour explain the poor breeding success of great tits Parus major in northern Europe? J. Avian Biol. 34, 288–297 (2003).
Smith, S. M. Flock switching in chickadees: why be a winter floater? Am. Nat. 123, 81–98 (1984).
Hogstad, O. Social behaviour in the non-breeding season in great tits Parus major and willow tits Poecile montanus: differences in juvenile birds’ route to territorial ownership, and pair-bond stability and mate protection in adults Ornis Norvegica 38, 1–8 (2015).
Laaksonen, M. & Lehikoinen, E. Age determinations of willow and crested tit Parus montanus and P. cristatus. Ornis Fenn. 53, 9–14 (1976).
Svensson, L. Identification Guide to European Passerines (BTO, 2016).
Lens, L. & Dhondt, A. A. Variation in coherence of crested tit winter flocks: an example of multivariative optimization. Acta Oecol. 13, 553–567 (1992).
Vinogradova, N. V., Dolnik, V. R., Efremov, V. D., Paevskij, V. A. Identification of Sex and Age of Passerine Birds of the USSR Fauna (Nauka, 1976).
Adam, I., Scharff, C. & Honarmand, M. Who is who? Non-invasive methods to individually sex and mark altricial chicks. J. Visual Exp. 87, 51429 (2014).
Russell, W. M. S. & Burch, R. L. The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Special edition published by Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW), 1992 (Methuen & Co, 1959).
Summers, R. W. The use of linear measurements when comparing masses. Bird Study 36, 77–79 (1988).
McNamara, J. M. & Houston, A. I. The value of fat reserves and the trade-off between starvation and predation. Acta Biotheor. 38, 37–61 (1990).
Pravosudov, V. V. et al. Social dominance and energy reserves in wintering woodland birds. Condor 101, 880–884 (1999).
Kullberg, C. Strategy of pygmy owl while hunting avian and mammalian prey. Ornis Fenn. 72, 72–78 (1995).
Krams, I. Length of feeding day and body weight of great tits in a single-and a two-predator environment. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 48, 147–153 (2000).
Krams, I. A., Krams, T. & Černihovičs, J. Selection of foraging sites in mixed willow and crested tit flocks: rank-dependent strategies. Ornis Fenn. 78, 1–11 (2001).
Krama, T. et al. Intensity of haemosporidian infection of parids positively correlates with proximity to water-bodies, but negatively with host survival. J. Ornithol. 156, 1075–1084 (2015).
Cīrule, D. et al. Habitat quality affects stress responses and survival in a bird wintering under extremely low ambient temperatures. Science of Nature 104, 99 (2017).
Kullberg, C. & Ekman, J. Does predation maintain tit community diversity? Oikos 89, 41–45 (2000).
Agresti, A. & Coull, B. A. Approximate is better than “exact” for interval estimation of binomial proportions. Am. Statistic 52, 119–126 (1998).
Pinheiro, J., Bates, D., DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D. & R Core Team. nlme: linear and nonlinear mixed effects models. R package version 3.1–137, https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nlme (2018).
R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, https://www.R-project.org/ (2016).
Source: Ecology - nature.com