Ferrari, M. J. et al. The dynamics of measles in sub-Saharan Africa. Nature 451, 679–684 (2008).
Hudson, P. J. et al. Trophic interactions and population growth rates: Describing patterns and identifying mechanisms. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 357, 1259–1271 (2002).
Thieltges, D. W., Ferguson, M. A. D., Jones, C. S., Leslie, R. & Poulin, R. Biogeographical patterns of marine larval trematode parasites in two intermediate snail hosts in Europe. J. Biogeogr. 36, 1493–1501 (2009).
Bryan, H. M. et al. Seasonal and biogeographical patterns of gastrointestinal parasites in large carnivores: Wolves in a coastal archipelago. Parasitology 139, 781–790 (2012).
Hosseini, P. R., Dhondt, A. A. & Dobson, A. Seasonality and wildlife disease: how seasonal birth, aggregation and variation in immunity affect the dynamics of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in house finches. Proc. R Soc. London Ser. B Biol. Sci. 271, 2569–2577 (2004).
Guernier, V., Hochberg, M. E. & Guégan, J. F. Ecology drives the worldwide distribution of human diseases. PLoS Biol. 2, 740–746 (2004).
Nunn, C. L., Altizer, S. M., Sechrest, W. & Cunningham, A. A. Latitudinal gradients of parasite species richness in primates. Divers. Distrib. 11, 249–256 (2005).
Merino, S. et al. Haematozoa in forest birds from southern Chile: Latitudinal gradients in prevalence and parasite lineage richness. Austral. Ecol. 33, 329–340 (2008).
Benejam, L., Alcaraz, C., Sasal, P., Simon-Levert, G. & García-Berthou, E. Life history and parasites of the invasive mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) along a latitudinal gradient. Biol. Invasions 11, 2265–2277 (2009).
Seabloom, E. W., Borer, E. T., Mitchell, C. E. & Power, A. G. Viral diversity and prevalence gradients in North American Pacific Coast grasslands. Ecology 91, 721–732 (2010).
Bonds, M. H., Dobson, A. P. & Keenan, D. C. Disease ecology, biodiversity, and the latitudinal gradient in income. PLoS Biol. 10, e1001456 (2012).
Kriger, K. M., Pereoglou, F. & Hero, J. M. Latitudinal variation in the prevalence and intensity of chytrid (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) infection in eastern Australia. Conserv. Biol. 21, 1280–1290 (2007).
Peterson, R. O., Thomas, N. J., Thurber, J. M., Vucetich, J. A. & Waite, T. A. Population limitations and the wolves of Isle Royale. J. Mammal. 97, 828–841 (1998).
Almberg, E. S., Mech, L. D., Smith, D. W., Sheldon, J. W. & Crabtree, R. L. A serological survey of infectious disease in Yellowstone National Park’s canid community. PLoS ONE 4, e7042 (2009).
Almberg, E. S. et al. Social living mitigates the costs of a chronic illness in a cooperative carnivore. Ecol. Lett. 18, 660–667 (2015).
Brandell, E. E. et al. Infectious diseases in Yellowstone’s Wolves. In Yellowstone Wolves: Science and Discovery in the World’s First National Park (eds. Smith, D. W., Stahler, D. R. & MacNulty, D. R.) 121–133 (The University of Chicago Press, 2020).
Watts, D. E. & Benson, A. M. Prevalence of antibodies for selected canine pathogens among wolves (Canis lupus) from the Alaska Peninsula, USA. J. Wildl. Dis. 52, 506–515 (2016).
Carstensen, M. et al. A serosurvey of diseases of free-ranging gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Minnesota, USA. J. Wildl. Dis. 53, 459–471 (2017).
Anderson, R. M. & May, R. M. Regulation and stability of host-parasite population interactions: I. Regulatory processes. J. Anim. Ecol. 47, 219–247 (1978).
Silbernagel, E. R., Skelton, N. K., Waldner, C. L. & Bollinger, T. K. Interaction among deer in a chronic wasting disease endemic zone. J. Wildl. Manag. 75, 1453–1461 (2011).
Gehrt, S. D. Raccoons and allies. In Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation (eds. Feldhamer, G., Thompson, B. & Chapman, J.) 611–633 (2003).
McFarlane, R., Sleigh, A. & McMichael, T. Synanthropy of wild mammals as a determinant of emerging infectious diseases in the Asian-Australasian region. EcoHealth 9, 24–35 (2012).
Woodroffe, R. et al. Contact with domestic dogs increases pathogen exposure in endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). PLoS ONE 7, e30099 (2012).
Knobel, D. L., Butler, J. R., Lembo, T., Critchlow, R. & Gompper, M. E. Dogs, disease, and wildlife. In Free-Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation (ed. Gompper, M. E.) (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014).
Viana, M. et al. Dynamics of a morbillivirus at the domestic–wildlife interface: Canine distemper virus in domestic dogs and lions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112, 1464–1469 (2015).
Bianco, A. et al. Two waves of canine distemper virus showing different spatio-temporal dynamics in Alpine wildlife (2006–2018). Infect. Genet. Evol. 84, 104359 (2020).
Dubey, J. P., Schares, G. & Ortega-Mora, L. M. Epidemiology and control of neosporosis and Neospora caninum. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 20, 323–367 (2007).
Anderson, T. M. et al. Molecular and evolutionary history of melanism in North American gray wolves. Science 323, 1339–1343 (2009).
Candille, S. I. et al. A β-defensin mutation causes black coat color in domestic dogs. Science 318, 1418–1423 (2007).
Coulson, T., Macnulty, D. R., Stahler, D. R., Wayne, R. K. & Smith, D. W. Modeling effects of environmental change on wolf population dynamics, trait evolution, and life history. Science 334, 1275–1278 (2011).
Hedrick, P. W., Stahler, D. R. & Dekker, D. Heterozygote advantage in a finite population: Black color in wolves. J. Hered. 105, 457–465 (2014).
Altizer, S., Davis, A. K., Cook, K. C. & Cherry, J. J. Age, sex, and season affect the risk of mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in a southeastern house finch population. Can. J. Zool. 82, 755–763 (2004).
Biek, R. et al. Factors associated with pathogen seroprevalence and infection in Rocky Mountains cougars. J. Wildl. Dis. 42, 606–615 (2006).
Härkönen, T., Harding, K., Rasmussen, T. D., Teilmann, J. & Dietz, R. Age- and sex-specific mortality patterns in an emerging wildlife epidemic: The phocine distemper in European harbour seals. PLoS ONE 2, e887 (2007).
Guerra-Silveira, F. & Abad-Franch, F. Sex bias in infectious disease epidemiology: Patterns and processes. PLoS ONE 8, e62390 (2013).
McDonald, J. L., Smith, G. C., McDonald, R. A., Delahay, R. J. & Hodgson, D. Mortality trajectory analysis reveals the drivers of sex-specific epidemiology in natural wildlife–disease interactions. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 281, 20140526 (2014).
Williams, E. S. & Barker, I. K. (eds) Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals (Wiley, New York, 2001).
USGS. North America Political Boundaries. (2006). Available at: https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/4fb555ebe4b04cb937751db9.
Justice-Allen, A. & Clement, M. J. Effect of canine parvovirus and canine distemper virus on the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) population in the USA. J. Wildl. Dis. 55, 682–688 (2019).
Nelson, B. et al. Prevalence of antibodies to canine parvovirus and distemper virus in wolves in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. J. Wildl. Dis. 48, 68–76 (2012).
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing). (2019 v3.6.3). Available at: https://www.R-project.org.
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B. & Walker, S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J. Stat. Softw. 67, 1–48 (2015).
Gelman, A. & Loken, E. The garden of forking paths: Why multiple comparisons can be a problem, even when there is no “fishing expedition” or “p-hacking” and the research hypothesis was posited ahead of time. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1272–1280 (2013).
Fuller, T. K. & Murray, D. L. Biological and logistical explanations of variation in wolf population density. Anim. Conserv. 1, 153–157 (1998).
Fuller, T. K. & Sievert, P. R. Carnivore demography and the consequences of changes in prey availability. In Conservation biology series – Cambridge 163–178 (2001).
MacNulty, D. R., Tallian, A., Stahler, D. R. & Smith, D. W. Influence of group size on the success of wolves hunting bison. PLoS ONE 9, 1–8 (2014).
Barber-Meyer, S. M., Mech, L. D., Newton, W. E. & Borg, B. L. Differential wolf-pack-size persistence and the role of risk when hunting dangerous prey. Behaviour 153, 1473–1487 (2016).
Gipson, P. S., Ballard, W. B., Nowak, R. M. & Mech, L. D. Accuracy and precision of estimating age of gray wolves by tooth wear. J. Wildl. Manag. 64, 752 (2000).
Fuller, T. K., Mech, L. D. & Cochrane, J. F. Wolf population dynamics. In Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation (eds Mech, L. D. & Boitani, L.) 161–191 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2003).
Jimenez, M. D. et al. Wolf dispersal in the Rocky Mountains, Western United States: 1993–2008. J. Wildl. Manag. 81, 581–592 (2017).
NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center. Gridded Population of the World (GPW), v4. EarthData (2015). Available at: https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/gpw-v4-population-count-rev11/data-download.
Millán, J. et al. Patterns of exposure of Iberian wolves (Canis lupus) to canine viruses in human-dominated landscapes. EcoHealth 13, 123–134 (2016).
North American Land Change Monitoring System 30m, 2010–2015 (Landsat). Commission of Environmental Cooperation (2015). Available at: http://www.cec.org/north-american-land-change-monitoring-system/.
USGS EROS Archive—Digital Elevation—Global 30 Arc-Second Elevation (GTOPO30). Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center (1996).
Hesselbarth, M. H. K., Sciaini, M., With, K. A., Wiegand, K. & Nowosad, J. landscapemetrics: an open-source R tool to calculate landscape metrics. Ecography 42, 1648–1657 (2019).
Poole, K. G., Wakelyn, L. A. & Nicklen, P. N. Habitat selection by lynx in the Northwest Territories. Can. J. Zool. 74, 845–850 (1996).
Nielsen, S. E., Boyce, M. S., Stenhouse, G. B. & Munro, R. H. M. Modeling grizzly bear habitats in the yellowhead ecosystem of Alberta: Taking autocorrelation seriously. Ursus 13, 45–56 (2001).
Arjo, W. M. & Pletscher, D. H. Coyote and wolf habitat use in northwestern Montana. Northwest Sci. 78, 24–32 (2004).
Oakleaf, J. K. et al. Habitat selection by recolonizing wolves in the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States. J. Wildl. Manag. 70, 554–563 (2006).
Hebblewhite, M. & Merrill, E. Modelling wildlife-human relationships for social species with mixed-effects resource selection models. J. Appl. Ecol. 45, 834–844 (2008).
Roever, C. L., Boyce, M. S. & Stenhouse, G. B. Grizzly bears and forestry II: Grizzly bear habitat selection and conflicts with road placement. For. Ecol. Manag. 256, 1262–1269 (2008).
Houle, M., Fortin, D., Dussault, C., Courtois, R. & Ouellet, J. P. Cumulative effects of forestry on habitat use by gray wolf (Canis lupus) in the boreal forest. Landsc. Ecol. 25, 419–433 (2010).
Mayor, S. J., Schneider, D. C., Schaefer, J. A. & Mahoney, S. P. Habitat selection at multiple scales. Ecoscience 16, 238–247 (2009).
Milakovic, B. et al. Habitat selection by a focal predator (Canis lupus) in a multiprey ecosystem of the northern Rockies. J. Mammal. 92, 568–582 (2011).
Kittle, A. M. et al. Wolves adapt territory size, not pack size to local habitat quality. J. Anim. Ecol. 84, 1177–1186 (2015).
Kittle, A. M. et al. Landscape-level wolf space use is correlated with prey abundance, ease of mobility, and the distribution of prey habitat. Ecosphere 8, e01783 (2017).
Morin, S. J., Bowman, J., Marrotte, R. R. & Fortin, M. J. Fine-scale habitat selection by sympatric Canada lynx and bobcat. Ecol. Evol. 10, 9396–9409 (2020).
O’Neil, S. T., Vucetich, J. A., Beyer, D. E., Hoy, S. R. & Bump, J. K. Territoriality drives preemptive habitat selection in recovering wolves: Implications for carnivore conservation. J. Anim. Ecol. 89, 1433–1447 (2020).
Gelman, A. & Hill, J. Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models (Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Menard, S. Standards for standardized logistic regression coefficients. Soc. Forces 89, 1409–1428 (2011).
Hosmer, D. W. & Lemeshow, S. Applied Logistic Regression (Wiley, New York, 2000).
Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R. & Friedman, J. The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction (Springer, Berlin, 2009).
Finkelman, B. S. et al. Global patterns in seasonal activity of influenza A/H3N2, A/H1N1, and B from 1997 to 2005: Viral coexistence and latitudinal gradients. PLoS ONE 2, e1296 (2007).
Nguyen, D. et al. Fungal disease incidence along tree diversity gradients depends on latitude in European forests. Ecol. Evol. 6, 2426–2438 (2016).
Rhodes, C. J., Atkinson, R. P. D., Anderson, R. M. & Macdonald, D. W. Rabies in Zimbabwe: reservoir dogs and the implications for disease control. Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 353, 999–1010 (1998).
Lembo, T. et al. Exploring reservoir dynamics: A case study of rabies in the Serengeti ecosystem. J. Appl. Ecol. 45, 1246–1257 (2008).
Nunn, C. L., Altizer, S., Jones, K. E. & Sechrest, W. Comparative tests of parasite species richness in primates. Am. Nat. 162, 597–614 (2003).
Nunn, C. L. & Heymann, E. W. Malaria infection and host behavior: A comparative study of Neotropical primates Malaria infection and host behavior. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 59, 30–37 (2005).
Begon, M., Bowers, R. G., Kadianakis, N. & Hodgkinson, D. E. Disease and community structure: the importance of host self-regulation in a host-host-pathogen model. Am. Nat. 139, 1131–1150 (1992).
Power, A. G. & Mitchell, C. E. Pathogen spillover in disease epidemics. Am. Nat. 164, S79–S89 (2004).
Keesing, F., Holt, R. D. & Ostfeld, R. S. Effects of species diversity on disease risk. Ecol. Lett. 9, 485–498 (2006).
Schweizer, R. M. et al. Natural selection and origin of a melanistic allele in North American gray wolves. Mol. Biol. Evol. 35, 1190–1209 (2018).
Wilson, P. J., Grewal, S. K., Mallory, F. F. & White, B. N. Genetic characterization of hybrid wolves across Ontario. J. Hered. 100, S80–S89 (2009).
Gondim, L. F. P. et al. Transmission of Neospora caninum between wild and domestic animals. J. Parasitol. 90, 1361–1365 (2004).
Dubey, J. P. et al. Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from Iowa and Minnesota using four serologic tests. Vet. Parasitol. 161, 330–334 (2009).
Stieve, E., Beckmen, K., Kania, S. A., Widner, A. & Patton, S. Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii antibody prevalence in Alaska wildlife. J. Wildl. Dis. 46, 348–355 (2010).
Pruvot, M., Hutchins, W. & Orsel, K. Statistical evaluation of a commercial Neospora caninum competitive ELISA in the absence of a gold standard: Application to wild elk (Cervus elaphus) in Alberta. Parasitol. Res. 113, 2899–2905 (2014).
Bondo, K. J. et al. Health survey of boreal caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in northeastern British Columbia, Canada. J. Wildl. Dis. 55, 544–562 (2019).
Donahoe, S. L., Lindsay, S. A., Krockenberger, M., Phalen, D. & Šlapeta, J. A review of neosporosis and pathologic findings of Neospora caninum infection in wildlife. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl. 4, 216–238 (2015).
Huggard, D. J. Prey selectivity of wolves in Banff National Park I. Prey species. Can. J. Zool. 71, 130–139 (1993).
Hebblewhite, M., Paquet, P. C., Pletscher, D. H., Lessard, R. B. & Callaghan, C. J. Development and application of a ratio estimator to estimate wolf kill rates and variance in a multiple-prey system. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 31, 933–946 (2003).
Adams, L. G. et al. Are inland wolf-ungulate systems influenced by marine subsidies of Pacific salmon?. Ecol. Appl. 20, 251–262 (2010).
Latham, A. D. M., Latham, M. C., McCutchen, N. A. & Boutin, S. Invading white-tailed deer change wolf-caribou dynamics in northeastern Alberta. J. Wildl. Manag. 75, 204–212 (2011).
Metz, M. C., Smith, D. W., Vucetich, J. A., Stahler, D. R. & Peterson, R. O. Seasonal patterns of predation for gray wolves in the multi-prey system of Yellowstone National Park. J. Anim. Ecol. 81, 553–563 (2012).
Merkle, J. A., Polfus, J. L., Derbridge, J. J. & Heinemeyer, K. S. Dietary niche partitioning among black bears, grizzly bears and wolves in a multi-prey ecosystem. Can. J. Zool. 95, 663–671 (2017).
Gable, T. D., Windels, S. K., Bruggink, J. G. & Barber-Meyer, S. M. Weekly summer diet of gray wolves (Canis lupus) in northeastern Minnesota. Am. Midl. Nat. 179, 15–27 (2018).
O’Donovan, S. A., Budge, S. M., Hobson, K. A., Kelly, A. P. & Derocher, A. E. Intrapopulation variability in wolf diet revealed using a combined stable isotope and fatty acid approach. Ecosphere 9, e02420 (2018).
Whittington, J., St. Clair, C. C. & Mercer, G. Spatial responses of wolves to roads and trails in mountain valleys. Ecol. Appl. 15, 543–553 (2005).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
